CASE

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Case Name

W. and B. v. H. (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) [2002] 1 FLR 1008

INCADAT reference

HC/E/UKe 470

Court

Country

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Name

High Court

Level

First Instance

Judge(s)
Hedley J.

States involved

Requesting State

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Requested State

UNITED KINGDOM - ENGLAND AND WALES

Decision

Date

18 February 2002

Status

-

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Rights of Custody - Art. 3 | Procedural Matters | Interpretation of the Convention

Order

Application dismissed

HC article(s) Considered

3

HC article(s) Relied Upon

3

Other provisions

-

Authorities | Cases referred to
Al Habtoor v Fotheringham [2001] EWCA Civ 186, [2001] 1 FLR 951, CA; Re B. (A Minor) (Abduction) [1994] 2 FLR 249, CA; B. v. H. (Habitual Residence: Wardship) [2002] 1 FLR 388, FD; Re J.S. (Private International Adoption) [2000] 2 FLR 638, FD; Re M. (Abduction: Habitual Residence) [1996] 1 FLR 887, CA.

INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

General Approach to Interpretation
Pérez-Vera Report
Autonomous Concepts
Habitual Residence
Habitual Residence
Can a Child be left without a Habitual Residence?

Article 12 Return Mechanism

Rights of Custody
Sources of Custody Rights
Who may Hold Rights of Custody for Convention Purposes?

Implementation & Application Issues

Procedural Matters
Oral Evidence

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The twin children were born in England to a surrogate mother. At the date of the hearing they were 3 months old and had spent all of their lives in England. The surrogacy agreement was made in California on 12 February 2001 between a married Californian couple and an English woman. It was agreed that the English surrogate mother would carry embryos nurtured from the egg of an anonymous donor and fertilised by the sperm of the Californian husband.

Consequently, only the husband would have any biological connection with the child. The agreement contemplated that after the necessary medical procedures the surrogate mother would go home to England and only return to California for the birth, at which the husband and wife would be present. The Californian couple would take immediate possession of the child after the birth.

The surrogate mother underwent the necessary treatment in accordance with the agreement. However, it was then discovered that she was carrying twins and this led to a dispute between the parties. The surrogate mother invoked the jurisdiction of the California courts.

On 3 October 2001 a Californian court awarded "joint physical and legal custody of each of the children upon birth" to the Californian couple. The order further stated that the surrogate mother had "no mother-child relationship with either child and no obligations of, nor rights of, a parent-child relationship with either of the children".

The surrogate mother did not contest this order having returned to England. She subsequently determined to give birth in England and not to return to California. There followed many court applications, inter alia, the mother filed an application to appeal the order of 3 October. The Californian couple issued return proceedings under the Hague Convention, claiming that the twins were being wrongfully retained in the United Kingdom.

Ruling

Application dismissed; the children were found to be without a habitual residence therefore the Convention was not applicable.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3

The trial judge noted that if the children were not habitually resident in California then the Convention could not apply. He then reflected on the issue as to whether the habitual residence of a child at birth is derived exclusively from its parents. He concluded that as a matter of law this could not be correct, noting that it risked confusing a legal proposition (domicile) with a factual proposition (habitual residence). The judge concluded that the children were not, nor had they ever been habitually resident in California. To have found otherwise would 'involve a degree of artificiality inconsistent with a proposition of fact'. He further found that they were not habitually resident in England since they had no biological connection with the surrogate mother, they were always intended to be American children and their future was undecided. The judge further noted that the mother had placed herself and her children under the jurisdiction of the Californian courts. He ruled therefore that the twins had no habitual residence.

Rights of Custody - Art. 3

The trial judge noted that there was a significant difference in the status of the parties under English law and Californian law. The surrogacy agreement was enforceable under Californian law but not under English law. Under English law all rights were vested in the surrogate mother, although the Californian father could apply for parental responsibility. The court found that under Californian law the father had rights of custody for the purposes of the Convention. These rights could be discerned from the lawful and effective surrogacy agreement, the still valid order of 3 October 2001 and in particular from his status under the Californian Family Code.

Procedural Matters

The judge was assisted by oral testimony from two specialist family law attorneys in California via a video link in order to assess whether the Californian couple (or either one of them) had rights of custody in that State. The decision was given in open court and publicity was not restricted as it raised serious issues of public importance. However, reporting or discussing the case in such a way which might reasonably lead to an identification of the twins was prohibited.

Interpretation of the Convention

The trial judge noted that this application dealt with a situation which was certainly not envisaged by the drafters of the Convention. Nevertheless, drawing a parallel with the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 which he classified as a ‘living instrument’, he stated that the principles of the 1980 instrument should be adapted to cover developing human ingenuity.

INCADAT comment

The Californian parents subsequently made a non-Hague application for the return of the children. This was granted under the inherent jurisdiction of the High Court: W and W v H (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) No 2 [2002] 2 FLR 252. Hedley J., who again heard the application, ordered the return of the children to California. He ruled that California was the most convenient jurisdiction for a merits hearing on the future of the twins.

It was the jurisdiction in which the biological father and his wife were living, the jurisdiction in which the surrogacy agreement had been made and, significantly, the jurisdiction which had been seized by the surrogate mother. He further noted that the case had only an accidental connection with England and that the obligations of comity required the High Court to trust the Californian court to act consistently with the best interests of the children.

Albeit dealing with a different factual situation it may be noted that in an earlier English case it was found that a child had acquired a habitual residence in Texas having been born there and having lived there for two days, see: Re J.S. (Private International Adoption) [2000] 2 FLR 638; [2000] Fam Law 787 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 479].

In an American appellate decision it was found that a child did not acquire a habitual residence in the State in which it was born and in which it spent the first two months of its life as the parents did not share a settled intention for the child to live there, see: Delvoye v. Lee, 329 F.3d 330 (3rd Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 529].

Pérez-Vera Report

Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.

Autonomous Concepts

Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Can a Child be left without a Habitual Residence?

In early Convention case law there was a clear reluctance on the part of appellate courts to find that a child did not have a habitual residence.  This was because of the concern that such a conclusion would render the instrument inoperable, see:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re F. (A Minor) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 548 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 40];

Australia
Cooper v. Casey (1995) FLC 92-575 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 104].

However, in more recent years there has been a recognition that situations do exist where it is not possible to regard a child as being habitually resident anywhere:

Australia
D.W. & Director-General, Department of Child Safety [2006] FamCA 93, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 870].

In this case the majority accepted that their decision could be said to deny the child of the benefit of the Convention. However, the majority argued that the interests of children generally could be adversely affected if courts were too willing to find that a parent who had attempted a reconciliation in a foreign country, was to be found, together with the child, to have become "habitually resident" in that foreign country.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
W. and B. v. H. (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) [2002] 1 FLR 1008 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 470];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Robertson v. Robertson 1998 SLT 468 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 194];

D. v. D. 2002 SC 33 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 351];

New Zealand
S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 816];

United States of America
Delvoye v. Lee, 329 F.3d 330 (3rd Cir. 2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 529];

Ferraris v. Alexander, 125 Cal. App. 4th 1417 (2005) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/US 797].

Sources of Custody Rights

Preparation of INCADAT case law analysis in progress.

Who may Hold Rights of Custody for Convention Purposes?

Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.

Oral Evidence

To ensure that Convention cases are dealt with expeditiously, as is required by the Convention, courts in a number of jurisdictions have restricted the use of oral evidence, see:

Australia
Gazi v. Gazi (1993) FLC 92-341, 16 Fam LR 18; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 277]

It should be noted however that more recently Australia's supreme jurisdiction, the High Court, has cautioned against the ‘inadequate, albeit prompt, disposition of return applications', rather a ‘thorough examination on adequate evidence of the issues' was required, see:

M.W. v. Director-General, Department of Community Services [2008] HCA 12, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 988].

Canada
Katsigiannis v. Kottick-Katsigianni (2001), 55 O.R. (3d) 456 (C.A.); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 758].

The Court of Appeal for Ontario held that if credibility was a serious issue, courts should consider hearing viva voce evidence of witnesses whose credibility is in issue.

China - Hong Kong
S. v. S. [1998] 2 HKC 316; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 234];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re F. (A Minor) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 548; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 40];

Re W. (Abduction: Procedure) [1995] 1 FLR 878; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 37].

In the above case it was accepted that a situation where oral evidence should be allowed was where the affidavit evidence was in direct conflict.

Re W. (Abduction: Domestic Violence) [2004] EWCA Civ 1366, [2005] 1 FLR 727; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 771]

In the above case the Court of Appeal ruled that a trial judge could consider of his own motion to allow oral evidence where he conceived that oral evidence might be determinative of the case.

However, to warrant oral exploration of written evidence as to the existence of a grave risk of harm which was only embryonic on the written material, a judge must be satisfied that there was a realistic possibility that oral evidence would establish an Article 13(1) b) case.

Re F. (Abduction: Child's Wishes) [2007] EWCA Civ 468, [2007] 2 FLR 697; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 906]

Here the Court of Appeal affirmed that where the exception of acquiescence was alleged oral evidence was more commonly allowed because of the necessity to ascertain the applicant's subjective state of mind, as well as his communications in response to knowledge of the removal or retention.

Finland
Supreme Court of Finland: KKO:2004:76; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FI 839].

Ireland
In the Matter of M. N. (A Child) [2008] IEHC 382; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 992].

The trial judge noted that applications were heard on affidavit evidence only, except where the Court, in exceptional circumstances, directed or permitted oral evidence.

New Zealand
Secretary for Justice v. Abrahams, ex parte Brown; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 492];

Hall v. Hibbs [1995] NZFLR 762; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 248];

South Africa
Pennello v. Pennello [2003] 1 All SA 716; [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 497];

Central Authority v. H. 2008 (1) SA 49 (SCA); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 900].

In the above case the Supreme Court of Appeal noted that even where the parties had not requested that oral evidence be admitted, it might be required where a finding on the issue of consent could not otherwise be reached.

United States of America
Ferraris v. Alexander, 125 Cal. App. 4th 1417 (Cal. App. 3d. Dist., 2005); [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USs 797]

The father argued that the trial court denied him a fair hearing because it determined disputed issues of fact without hearing oral evidence from the parties.

The Court of Appeal rejected this submission noting that nothing in the Hague Convention entitled the father to an evidentiary hearing with sworn witness testimony. Moreover, it noted that under California law declarations could be used in place of witness testimony in various situations.

The Court further ruled that the father could not question the propriety of the procedure used with regard to evidence on appeal because he did not object to the use of affidavits in evidence at trial.

For a consideration of the use of oral evidence in Convention proceedings see: Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' OUP, Oxford, 1999 at p. 257 et seq.

Under the rules applicable within the European Union for intra-EU abductions (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 (Brussels II a)) Convention applications are now subject to additional provisions, including the requirement that an applicant be heard before a non-return order is made [Article 11(5) Brussels II a Regulation], and, that the child be heard ‘during the proceedings unless this appears inappropriate having regard to his or her age or degree of maturity' [Article 11(2) Brussels II a Regulation].