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Nombre del caso
F v F, MA 2898/92 [1992] IsrSC (unreported)
Referencia INCADAT
HC/E/IL 327
Tribunal
Israel
última instancia
Estados involucrados
Canadá
Israel
Fallo
19 November 1992
Definitiva
Derechos de custodia - art. 3
Apelación desestimada, restitución ordenada
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-
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INCADAT comentario
Mecanismo de restitución del artículo 12
Fuentes del derecho de custodia
¿Qué se entiende por derecho de custodia a los fines del Convenio?
SUMARIO
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Facts
The agreement of May 1991 provided that the mother have custody of the children, the father access. But the agreement further provided that each party required the other's confirmation to every vacation, major change or unusual event which may be controversial according to Jewish law.
The agreement was subject to change by a Rabbinical court. From the summer of 1991, the mother sought to relocate with the children to Israel. The parents both consulted with rabbis.
The civil divorce, given on 4 October 1991, provided that the mother has custody and that the father's access would be established on an amicable basis, and if lacking, the parties would consult a rabbi (the Israeli courts subsequently concluded that the civil divorce was designed to reflect the terms of the religious divorce).
In February 1992, the father filed a petition in the competent Quebec civil court seeking custody of the three children. On 5 March 1992, the mother removed the children to Israel. On 23 March, the father was awarded custody by the Quebec court. The father filed a return petition in June 1992.
On 28 October, the Tel Aviv District Court ruled that the father had rights of custody which had been breached by the removal of the children. The Court found none of the Convention's exceptions to be applicable and ordered the return of the children to Canada. The mother appealed.
Ruling
Grounds
Rights of Custody - Art. 3
The mother appealed on the basis that the trial court had erred in finding that the father held rights of custody.
The Court held that the term "custody rights" must be interpreted broadly so that it apply to each case where there was a need for approval by one or the other of the parents to remove the children from one country to another.
Every case involving the removal of children from one State to another with the objection of one of the parents, who had the right to agree or disagree with it, and whose agreement was not given, would be considered to be wrongful.
The Court upheld the trial court's finding that the mother in unilaterally removing the children had breached the father's rights under both the religious and civil agreements. Both were held to be "agreements having legal effect" for the purposes of Art. 3 of the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention.
The trial court had additionally found that the mother had breached the law of Quebec in removing the children whilst the Quebec courts were seized of custody proceedings.
Author of the summary: Peter McEleavy
INCADAT comment
Sources of Custody Rights
Preparation of INCADAT case law analysis in progress.
What is a Right of Custody for Convention Purposes?
Courts in an overwhelming majority of Contracting States have accepted that a right of veto over the removal of the child from the jurisdiction amounts to a right of custody for Convention purposes, see:
Australia
In the Marriage of Resina [1991] FamCA 33, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 257];
State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];
Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 September 1999, Family Court of Australia (Brisbane) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 294];
Austria
2 Ob 596/91, OGH, 05 February 1992, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 375];
Canada
Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 11].
The Supreme Court did draw a distinction between a non-removal clause in an interim custody order and in a final order. It suggested that were a non-removal clause in a final custody order to be regarded as a custody right for Convention purposes, that could have serious implications for the mobility rights of the primary carer.
Thorne v. Dryden-Hall, (1997) 28 RFL (4th) 297 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 12];
Decision of 15 December 1998, [1999] R.J.Q. 248 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 334];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654, [1989] 2 All ER 465, [1989] 1 FLR 403, [1989] Fam Law 228 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 34];
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880];
France
Ministère Public c. M.B. 79 Rev. crit. 1990, 529, note Y. Lequette [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 62];
Germany
2 BvR 1126/97, Bundesverfassungsgericht, (Federal Constitutional Court), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 338];
10 UF 753/01, Oberlandesgericht Dresden, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 486];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Bordera v. Bordera 1995 SLT 1176 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 183];
A.J. v. F.J. [2005] CSIH 36, 2005 1 SC 428 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 803];
South Africa
Sonderup v. Tondelli 2001 (1) SA 1171 (CC), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 309];
Switzerland
5P.1/1999, Tribunal fédéral suisse, (Swiss Supreme Court), 29 March 1999, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 427].
United States of America
In the United States, the Federal Courts of Appeals were divided on the appropriate interpretation to give between 2000 and 2010.
A majority followed the 2nd Circuit in adopting a narrow interpretation, see:
Croll v. Croll, 229 F.3d 133 (2d Cir., 2000; cert. den. Oct. 9, 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 313];
Gonzalez v. Gutierrez, 311 F.3d 942 (9th Cir 2002) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 493];
Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491, 500 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 157 L. Ed. 2d 732, 124 S. Ct. 805 (2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494];
Abbott v. Abbott, 542 F.3d 1081 (5th Cir. 2008), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 989].
The 11th Circuit however endorsed the standard international interpretation.
Furnes v. Reeves, 362 F.3d 702 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 578].
The matter was settled, at least where an applicant parent has a right to decide the child's country of residence, or the court in the State of habitual residence is seeking to protect its own jurisdiction pending further decrees, by the US Supreme Court endorsing the standard international interpretation.
Abbott v. Abbott, 130 S. Ct. 1983 (2010), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 1029].
The standard international interpretation has equally been accepted by the European Court of Human Rights, see:
Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No. 41615/07, 8 January 2009 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1001].
Confirmed by the Grand Chamber: Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/07, 6 July 2010 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1323].
Right to Object to a Removal
Where an individual does not have a right of veto over the removal of a child from the jurisdiction, but merely a right to object and to apply to a court to prevent such a removal, it has been held in several jurisdictions that this is not enough to amount to a custody right for Convention purposes:
Canada
W.(V.) v. S.(D.), 134 DLR 4th 481 (1996), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA17];
Ireland
W.P.P. v. S.R.W. [2001] ILRM 371, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 271];
United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V.-B. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1999] 2 FLR 192, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 261];
S. v. H. (Abduction: Access Rights) [1998] Fam 49 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 36];
United Kingdom - Scotland
Pirrie v. Sawacki 1997 SLT 1160, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 188].
This interpretation has also been upheld by the Court of Justice of the European Union:
Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].
The European Court held that to find otherwise would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the sole custodian.
For academic commentary see:
P. Beaumont & P. McEleavy The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, Oxford, OUP, 1999, p. 75 et seq.;
M. Bailey The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention; Canadian Journal of Family Law, 1996, p. 287;
C. Whitman 'Croll v Croll: The Second Circuit Limits 'Custody Rights' Under the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction' 2001 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 605.
Hechos
El procedimiento involucra a tres niños nacidos en 1981, 1982 y 1985, respectivamente. Habían vivido con ambos padres en Quebec, Canadá, hasta que estos se divorciaron en 1991. Los padres se divorciaron primero en un tribunal rabínico donde suscribieron un acuerdo de custodia en mayo de 1991 y luego completaron su divorcio civil ante un tribunal canadiense.
El acuerdo de mayo de 1991 estipulaba que la madre tendría la custodia de los niños y el padre el régimen de visitas. Pero, el acuerdo estipulaba, además, que cada parte requería del permiso de la otra para irse de vacaciones con los niños, realizar cualquier cambio importante o celebrar cualquier evento inusual que pudiera ser polémico de conformidad con la ley judía.
El acuerdo estaba sujeto a modificaciones de parte de tribunales rabínicos. Desde el verano de 1991, la madre buscó trasladarse con los niños a Israel. Ambos padres consultaron con los rabinos.
El divorcio civil, de fecha 4 de octubre de 1991, estableció que la madre tenía la custodia y que el régimen de visitas del padre se establecería de forma amistosa o, en su defecto, que las partes consultarían a un rabino (los tribunales israelíes, posteriormente, concluyeron que el divorcio civil estaba diseñado para reflejar las condiciones del divorcio religioso).
En febrero de 1992, el padre presentó una solicitud ante el tribunal civil competente en Quebec para pedir la custodia de los tres niños. El 5 de marzo de 1992, la madre trasladó a los niños a Israel. El 23 de marzo, el tribunal de Quebec le otorgó la custodia al padre. El padre presentó una solicitud de restitución en junio de 1992.
El 28 de octubre, el tribunal de distrito de Tel Aviv determinó que los derechos de custodia del padre habían sido vulnerados por el traslado de los niños. El tribunal no encontró aplicable ninguna excepción del Convenio y ordenó la restitución de los niños a Canadá. La madre apeló.
Fallo
Apelación desestimada y restitución ordenada; el traslado fue ilícito y vulneró los derechos de custodia del padre.
Fundamentos
Derechos de custodia - art. 3
La madre apeló y alegó que el tribunal de primera instancia había incurrido en un error al afirmar que el padre tenía derechos de custodia.
El tribunal sostuvo que el término “derechos de custodia” debe interpretarse de manera extensiva para que pueda aplicarse a cada caso donde exista la necesidad de autorizar el traslado de los niños de un país a otro por alguna de las partes.
Toda situación que involucrara la restitución de niños de un Estado a otro con la objeción de uno de los padres, que tenía el derecho de estar o no de acuerdo con ese traslado y que no ha dado su consentimiento, sería considerada ilícita.
El tribunal confirmó la conclusión del tribunal de primera instancia de que la madre había trasladado a los niños unilateralmente y, por ende, había vulnerado los derechos de custodia del padre en virtud de los contratos religioso y civil. Ambos se consideraron “acuerdos vigentes” a tenor del art. 3 del Convenio de La Haya de 1980 sobre los Aspectos Civiles de la Sustracción Internacional de Menores.
El tribunal de primera instancia había constatado, además, que la madre había infringido la legislación de Quebec al trasladar a los niños mientras los tribunales de Quebec se encargaban del procedimiento de custodia.
Autor: Peter McEleavy
Comentario INCADAT
Fuentes del derecho de custodia
En curso de elaboración.
¿Qué se entiende por derecho de custodia a los fines del Convenio?
Los tribunales de una abrumadora mayoría de Estados contratantes han aceptado que el derecho a oponerse a la salida del menor de la jurisdicción equivale a un derecho de custodia a los fines del Convenio. Véanse:
Australia
En el caso Marriage of Resina [1991] FamCA 33, [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/AU 257];
State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/AU 232];
Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 de septiembre de 1999, Tribunal de Familia de Australia (Brisbane) [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/AU 294];
Austria
2 Ob 596/91, Oberster Gerichtshof, 05/02/1992 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/AT 375];
Canadá
Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/CA 11];
La Corte Suprema estableció una distinción entre una cláusula de no traslado en una orden de custodia provisoria y en una orden definitiva. Sugirió que si una cláusula de no traslado incluida en una orden de custodia definitiva se considerara equivalente a un derecho de custodia a los fines del Convenio, ello tendría serias implicancias para los derechos de movilidad de la persona que ejerce el cuidado principal del menor.
Thorne v. Dryden-Hall, (1997) 28 RFL (4th) 297 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/CA 12];
Decision of 15 December 1998, [1999] R.J.Q. 248 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/CA 334];
Reino Unido - Inglaterra y Gales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654, [1989] 2 All ER 465, [1989] 1 FLR 403, [1989] Fam Law 228 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/UKe 34];
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/UKe 880];
Francia
Ministère Public c. M.B., 79 Rev. crit. 1990, 529, note Y. Lequette [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/FR 62];
Alemania
2 BvR 1126/97, Bundesverfassungsgericht, (Tribunal Constitucional Federal), [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/DE 338];
10 UF 753/01, Oberlandesgericht Dresden, [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/DE 486];
Reino Unido - Escocia
Bordera v. Bordera 1995 SLT 1176 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/UKs 183];
A.J. v. F.J. [2005] CSIH 36, 2005 1 SC 428 [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/UKs 803];
Sudáfrica
Sonderup v. Tondelli 2001 (1) SA 1171 (CC), [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/ZA 309];
Suiza
5P.1/1999, Tribunal fédéral suisse, (Swiss Supreme Court), 29 March 1999, [Cita INCADAT: HC/E/CH 427].
Estados Unidos de América
[Traducción en curso - Por favor remítase a la versión inglesa]
Right to Object to a Removal
[Traducción en curso - Por favor remítase a la versión inglesa]
Para comentarios académicos véanse:
P. Beaumont & P. McEleavy, The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, Oxford, OUP, 1999, p. 75 ss;
M. Bailey, The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention, Canadian Journal of Family Law, 1996, p. 287.
C. Whitman, Croll v Croll: The Second Circuit Limits 'Custody Rights' Under the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, 2001 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 605.