CASE

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Case Name

State Central Authority v. CR [2005] Fam CA 1050

INCADAT reference

HC/E/AU 824

Court

Country

AUSTRALIA

Name

Family Court of Australia

Level

First Instance

Judge(s)
Kay J.

States involved

Requesting State

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Requested State

AUSTRALIA

Decision

Date

4 November 2005

Status

Final

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3 | Settlement of the Child - Art. 12(2)

Order

Return ordered

HC article(s) Considered

3 12(2)

HC article(s) Relied Upon

3 12(2)

Other provisions

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Authorities | Cases referred to
De Lewinsky v. Department of Community Services (1997) FLC 92-737; Re B. (minor) (abduction) (No 2) (1993) 1 FLR 993; Mozes v. Mozes (2001) 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir.2001); Gazi and Gazi (1993) FLC 92-341; State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746; Murray v. Director, Family Services (ACT) (1993) FLC 92-416; Re H. (minors) [1991] 2 AC 476; Loucas G. Matsas Salvage and Towage Maritime Company v. Fund in respect of the Proceeds of Sale of the ship Ionian Mariner (1997) 149 ALR 653; Director-General, Department of Community Services v. M. and C. (1998) FLC 92-829; Director-General, Department of Families, Youth and Community Care v. Moore (1999) FLC 92-841; Townsend v. Director-General, Department of Families, Youth and Community Care (1999) FLC 92-842; Secretary, Attorney-General's Department v. TS (2001) FLC 93-063; Messrs Beaumont and McEleavy, The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, (1999) Oxford University Press Soucie v Soucie (1995) SC 134; De L. v. Director-General, New South Wales Department of Community Services and Anor (1996) FLC 92-706; A.C. v. P.C. [HCMP 1238/2004]; Re N. (Minors)(Abduction) [1991] 1 FLR 413; Graziano v. Daniels (1991) FLC 92-212; Aulwes v. Mai, 2002 NSCA 127; Re H.B. (Abduction: Children's Objections) (No 2) [1998] 1 FLR 564; Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330.
Published in

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INCADAT comment

Aims & Scope of the Convention

Removal & Retention
Commencement of Removal / Retention
Habitual Residence
Habitual Residence

Exceptions to Return

Settlement of the child
Settlement of the Child
Discretion to make a Return Order where Settlement is established

SUMMARY

Summary available in EN | FR | ES

Facts

The application related to a young child, a boy, who was born in Australia in October 2003. The Australian mother and American father met via the Internet early in 2002. The mother flew to America to meet the father in June 2002, returning to Australia in July 2002. She returned to America in September 2002 and the parties married in Arkansas in November 2002. The mother came back to Australia on 8 December 2002 and then returned to live with her husband on 14 January 2003.

The parties travelled to Australia on 30 May 2003, returning to the United States on 14 February 2004, five months after the child was born. Six months later, on 19 July 2004, without the father's knowledge or consent the mother left Arkansas taking the child with her. She boarded a flight in Los Angeles late on 20 July. The plane did not leave until 21 July and arrived in Melbourne on the morning of 22 July.

The father filed custody proceedings in the Circuit Court of White County, Arkansas on 22 July. On 26 July an ex parte order was made restraining the father and the mother from removing the child from the jurisdiction of the court. On 3 November 2004 the Circuit Court of White County confirmed that it had jurisdiction in the action since the child was resident in Arkansas.

The father submitted a return application to the United States State Department in late June 2005. On 21 July 2005 a return application was filed in the Family Court of Australia at Melbourne.

Ruling

Return ordered; the removal wrongful and the exception invoked, Article 12(2), was not applicable.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3

The Court found on the balance of probabilities that on the date of the removal on 20 July 2004 the child was habitually resident in America and not in Australia. The factors that led to this conclusion were: • The mother had applied for permanent residency in the United States and then actively pursued her application as late as early July 2004; • The absence of any evidence that the father had pursued a like application to obtain permanent residency in Australia; • The mother’s extension of the return bookings for her and the child to come to Australia; • The continuous residence of the family in the United States from February 2004 to July 2004 with no evidence of any discussion between the parents of returning to live in Australia. Consequently the removal to Australia was in breach of the father’s rights of custody.

Settlement of the Child - Art. 12(2)

In deciding whether the application was filed within one year of the child’s removal, the Court relied on State Central Authority v Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746 and held that the moment on which time began to run was the time the child was removed from its place of habitual residence rather than the time it was brought to Australia. Considering the precise time of the removal from the United States the court found that this had to be calculated in accordance with local time at the place where the wrongful removal occurred, namely California. Since the plane left on July 21st Californian time the return application had been submitted within the one year time limit and therefore Article 12(2) was not applicable. Nevertheless the trial judge went on to consider how he would have decided the case had ‘settlement’ been at issue. Referring to previous Australian appellate authority he noted that no additional gloss should be given to the terms of the provision, rather they should be interpreted in accordance with their ordinary and natural meaning. In an earlier case, where the settlement of a 22 month old child was considered, the Chief Justice held that the onus to prove settlement was not a particularly heavy one, being simply an issue of fact to be determined on the balance of probabilities. In the light of this authority the trial judge concluded that the child was now settled in his new environment. The trial judge did though express concern as how easy it would be to show settlement under the test applicable in Australia where young child were concerned. Turning to whether a discretion would then have existed as to whether or not a return order should be made, the trial judge reiterated the conclusion he had reached in the case of Ayob that no such power existed under the Regulations implementing the Convention into Australian law.

INCADAT comment

Commencement of Removal / Retention

Primarily this will be a factual question for the court seised of the return petition. The issue may be of relevance where there is doubt as to whether the 12 month time limit referred to in Article 12(1) has elapsed, or indeed if there is uncertainty as to whether the alleged wrongful act has occurred before or after the entry into force of the Convention between the child's State of habitual residence and the State of refuge.

International Dimension

A legal issue which has arisen and been settled with little controversy in several States, is that as the Convention is only concerned with international protection for children from removal or retention and not with removal or retention within the State of their habitual residence, the removal or retention in question must of necessity be from the jurisdiction of the courts of the State of the child's habitual residence and not simply from the care of holder of custody rights.

Australia
Murray v. Director, Family Services (1993) FLC 92-416, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 113]. 

State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];  Kay J. confirmed that time did not run, for the purposes of Art. 12, from the moment the child arrived in the State of refuge.

State Central Authority v. C.R. [2005] Fam CA 1050, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];  Kay J. held that the precise determination of time had to be calculated in accordance with local time at the place where the wrongful removal had occurred.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re H.; Re S. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1991] 2 AC 476, [1991] 3 All ER 230, [1991] 2 FLR 262, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 115].

United Kingdom - Scotland
Findlay v. Findlay 1994 SLT 709, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 184].

However in a very early Convention case Kilgour v. Kilgour 1987 SC 55, 1987 SLT 568, 1987 SCLR 344, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 116], the parties were at one in proceeding on the basis that the relevant removal for the purposes of the Convention was a removal in breach of custody rights rather than a removal from the country where the child previously lived. 

Agreement on the issue of the commencement of return was not reached in the Israeli case Family Application 000111/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite:  HC/E/IL 938].  One judge accepted that the relevant date was the date of removal from the State of habitual residence, whilst the other who reached a view held that it was the date of arrival in Israel. 

Communication of Intention Not to Return a Child

Different positions have been adopted as to whether a retention will commence from the moment a person decides not to return a child, or whether the retention only commences from when the other custody holder learns of the intention not to return or that intention is specifically communicated.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
In Re S. (Minors) (Abduction: Wrongful Retention) [1994] Fam 70, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 117], the English High Court was prepared to accept that an uncommunicated decision by the abductor was of itself capable of constituting an act of wrongful retention.

Re A.Z. (A Minor) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [1993] 1 FLR 682, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 50]: the moment the mother unilaterally decided not to return the child was not the point in time at which the retention became wrongful. This was no more than an uncommunicated intention to retain the child in the future from which the mother could still have resiled.  The retention could have originated from the date of the aunt's ex parte application for residence and prohibited steps orders.

United States of America
Slagenweit v. Slagenweit, 841 F. Supp. 264 (N.D. Iowa 1993), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 143].

The wrongful retention did not begin to run until the mother clearly communicated her desire to regain custody and asserted her parental right to have the child live with her.

Zuker v. Andrews, 2 F. Supp. 2d 134 (D. Mass. 1998) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKf 122], the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts held that a retention occurs when, on an objective assessment, a dispossessed custodian learns that the child is not to be returned.

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 879].

The Court of Appeals held that ultimately it was not required to decide whether a child was not retained under the Convention until a parent unequivocally communicated his or her desire to regain custody, but it assumed that this standard applied.

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Settlement of the Child

A uniform interpretation has not emerged with regard to the concept of settlement; in particular whether it should be construed literally or rather in accordance with the policy objectives of the Convention.  In jurisdictions favouring the latter approach the burden of proof on the abducting parent is clearly greater and the exception is more difficult to establish.

Jurisdictions in which a heavy burden of proof has been attached to the establishment of settlement include:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re N. (Minors) (Abduction) [1991] 1 FLR 413 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 106]

In this case it was held that settlement is more than mere adjustment to surroundings. It involves a physical element of relating to, being established in, a community and an environment. It also has an emotional constituent denoting security and stability.

Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330, [2005] 1 FLR 169 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 598]

For academic criticism of Re N. see:

Collins L. et al., Dicey, Morris & Collins on the Conflict of Laws, 14th Edition, Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2006, paragraph 19-121.

However, it may be noted that a more recent development in England has been the adoption of a child-centric assessment of settlement by the House of Lords in Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937].  This ruling may impact on the previous case law.

However there was no apparent weakening of the standard in the non-Convention case Re F. (Children) (Abduction: Removal Outside Jurisdiction) [2008] EWCA Civ. 842, [2008] 2 F.L.R. 1649,[INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 982].

United Kingdom - Scotland
Soucie v. Soucie 1995 SC 134 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 107]

For Article 12(2) to be activated the interest of the child in not being uprooted must be so cogent that it outweighs the primary purpose of the Convention, namely the return of the child to the proper jurisdiction so that the child's future may be determined in the appropriate place.

P. v. S., 2002 FamLR 2 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 963]

A settled situation was one which could reasonably be relied upon to last as matters stood and did not contain indications that it was likely to change radically or to fall apart. There had therefore to be some projection into the future.

C. v. C. [2008] CSOH 42, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 962]

United States of America
In re Interest of Zarate, No. 96 C 50394 (N.D. Ill. Dec. 23, 1996) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf  134]

A literal interpretation of the concept of settlement has been favoured in:

Australia
Director-General, Department of Community Services v. M. and C. and the Child Representative (1998) FLC 92-829 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 291];

China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 825].

The impact of the divergent interpretations is arguably most marked where very young children are concerned.

It has been held that settlement is to be considered from the perspective of a young child in:

Austria
7Ob573/90 Oberster Gerichtshof, 17/05/1990 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 378];

Australia
Secretary, Attorney-General's Department v. T.S. (2001) FLC 93-063 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 823];

State Central Authority v. C.R [2005] Fam CA 1050 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 824];

Israel
Family Application 000111/07 Ploni v. Almonit, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 938];

Monaco
R 6136; M. Le Procureur Général contre M. H. K., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/MC 510];

Switzerland
Präsidium des Bezirksgerichts St. Gallen (District Court of St. Gallen) (Switzerland), decision of 8 September 1998, 4 PZ 98-0217/0532N, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 431].

A child-centric approach has also been adopted in several significant appellate decisions with regard to older children, with emphasis placed on the children's views.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937];

France
CA Paris 27 Octobre 2005, 05/15032, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 814];

Québec
Droit de la Famille 2785, Cour d'appel de  Montréal, 5 December 1997, No 500-09-005532-973 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 653].

In contrast, a more objective assessment was favoured in the United States decision:

David S. v. Zamira S., 151 Misc. 2d 630, 574 N.Y.S.2d 429 (Fam. Ct. 1991) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USs 208]
The children, aged 3 and 1 1/2, had not established significant ties to their community in Brooklyn; they were not involved in school, extra-curricular, community, religious or social activities which children of an older age would be.

Discretion to make a Return Order where Settlement is established

Unlike the Article 13 exceptions, Article 12(2) does not expressly afford courts a discretion to make a return order if settlement is established.  Where this issue has arisen for consideration the majority judicial view has nevertheless been to apply the provision as if a discretion does exist, but this has arisen in different ways.

Australia
The matter has not been conclusively decided but there would appear to be appellate support for inferring a discretion, reference has been made to English and Scottish case law, see:

Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care v. Moore, (1999) FLC 92-841 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 276].

United Kingdom - England & Wales
English case law initially favoured inferring that a Convention based discretion existed by virtue of Article 18, see:

Re S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [1991] 2 FLR 1, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 163];

Cannon v. Cannon [2004] EWCA CIV 1330, [2005] 1 FLR 169 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 598].

However, this interpretation was expressly rejected in the House of Lords decision Re M. (Children) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2007] UKHL 55, [2008] 1 AC 1288, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 937].  A majority of the panel held that the construction of Article 12(2) left the matter open that there was an inherent discretion where settlement was established.  It was pointed out that Article 18 did not confer any new power to order the return of a child under the Convention, rather it contemplated powers conferred by domestic law.

Ireland
In accepting the existence of a discretion reference was made to early English authority and Article 18.

P. v. B. (No. 2) (Child Abduction: Delay) [1999] 4 IR 185; [1999] 2 ILRM 401 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 391].

New Zealand
A discretion derives from the domestic legislation implementing the Convention, see:

Secretary for Justice (as the NZ Central Authority on behalf of T.J) v. H.J. [2006] NZSC 97, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 882].

United Kingdom - Scotland
Whilst the matter was not explored in any detail, settlement not being established, there was a suggestion that a discretion would exist, with reference being made to Article 18.

Soucie v. Soucie 1995 SC 134, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 107].

There have been a few decisions in which no discretion was found to attach to Article 12(2), these include:

Australia
State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232], - subsequently questioned;

State Central Authority v. C.R. [2005] Fam CA 1050 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 824];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re C. (Abduction: Settlement) [2004] EWHC 1245, [2005] 1 FLR 127, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 596] - subsequently overruled;

China - (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region)
A.C. v. P.C. [2004] HKMP 1238 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/HK 825];

Canada (Québec)
Droit de la Famille 2785, Cour d'appel de Montréal, 5 décembre 1997, No 500-09-005532-973 , [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 653].

Article 18 not being included in the act implementing the Convention in Quebec, it is understood that courts do not possess a discretionary power where settlement is established.

For academic commentary on the use of discretion where settlement is established, see:

Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' OUP, Oxford, 1999 at p. 204 et seq.;

R. Schuz, ‘In Search of a Settled Interpretation of Article 12(2) of the Hague Child Abduction Convention' [2008] Child and Family Law Quarterly.