HC/E/USf 827
UNITED STATES - FEDERAL JURISDICTION
United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit
Appellate Court
ISRAEL
UNITED STATES - FEDERAL JURISDICTION
21 March 2006
Final
Rights of Access - Art. 21
Appeal dismissed, application dismissed
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The application related to three of the four children born to a couple, who, whilst married, had resided in Israel. The parents divorced in July 1998, the decree being pronounced by a Rabbinical Court. The latter provided that the father would have custody of the two older children, the mother custody of the two younger children.
The parents subsequently arranged that instead the mother would have custody of the two girls, the father custody of the two boys. This arrangement was recognised in a second rabbinical decree of January 2000. However, between January and September 2000 the mother had care of all the children as the father underwent training in the United States having joined the United States Air Force Chaplaincy as a rabbi.
A third divorce decree was pronounced in July 2002 which confirmed the mother as having custody of the girls, the father of the boys, but it also provided that the father could take the boys to Germany where he was now posted and that one of the girls could go to Germany on an extended visit.
In December 2002 the parents agreed that the second girl could rejoin her siblings in Germany. In April 2004 the father took the children to the United States when he was posted there. In April 2004 the mother petitioned for the return of the children and for access to them.
On 18 April 2005 the United States District Court for the District of Maryland, at Greenbelt held that it did not have jurisdiction to hear the mother's access claims. This was confirmed as a final judgment and all access claims were dismissed on 23 May. The mother appealed.
It was the mother’s case that jurisdiction existed under s. 11603(b) of the United States implementing legislation, the International Child Abduction Remedies Act (ICARA), to bring an access application before the Federal Courts. In a majority decision this argument was rejected and the appeal dismissed. The majority affirmed that whilst reference was made to judicial proceedings securing the effective exercise of rights of access in s. 11603(b), this depended on there being such proceedings ‘under the Convention’, but the relevant provision in the Convention, Article 21, did not in fact provide for a ground of jurisdiction for access applications. The majority further relied on the fact that: the first provision of the implementing legislation, s. 11601 ‘Findings and Declarations’ made scant reference to access rights; five first instance judgments had found that there was no jurisdiction for federal courts to resolve access claims; there was a long established precedent that federal courts were courts of limited jurisdiction and generally abstained from hearing child custody matters; the legislative history of the implementing act indicated a desire to prevent federal courts from having to consider the merits of underlying custody claims, and, the appellate decision on which the mother sought to rely was not binding, not having been published, and could in any event be distinguished. In a dissenting judgment Traxler CJ found that the trial court had limited its analysis to the language of the Convention and did not address the effect of the implementing act. He also noted that earlier District Court judgments had also answered the jurisdictional question solely by reference to the text of the Convention rather than the implementing statute, often relying upon ICARA's language that federal courts have "jurisdiction of actions arising under the Convention". He added that in these decisions the terms of Article 21 were often compared unfavourably with those in Article 12 with a consequent finding that the Convention did not provide either a judicial forum to resolve access disputes or a substantive remedy for the denial of access rights. Notwithstanding the weight of authority he found that federal courts did have jurisdiction and if this was not accorded by the Convention it was by the terms of the implementing act, since the terms of s. 11603(b) were unambiguous in establishing jurisdiction with regard to judicial proceedings for arranging or securing the effective exercise of rights of access. This was further reinforced by the creation of separate proof requirements for return cases and access cases. He added that federal courts would not be forced to get involved in custody matters for it would be a simple matter of ascertaining whether access rights existed.
Article 21 has been subjected to varying interpretations. Contracting States favouring a literal interpretation have ruled that the provision does not establish a basis of jurisdiction for courts to intervene in access matters and is focussed on procedural assistance from the relevant Central Authority. Other Contracting States have allowed proceedings to be brought on the basis of Article 21 to give effect to existing access rights or even to create new access rights.
A literal interpretation of the provision has found favour in:
Austria
S. v. S., 25 May 1998, transcript (official translation), Regional civil court at Graz, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 245];
Germany
2 UF 286/97, Oberlandesgericht Bamberg, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 488];
United States of America
Bromley v. Bromley, 30 F. Supp. 2d 857, 860-61 (E.D. Pa. 1998). [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 223];
Teijeiro Fernandez v. Yeager, 121 F. Supp. 2d 1118, 1125 (W.D. Mich. 2000);
Janzik v. Schand, 22 November 2000, United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 463];
Wiggill v. Janicki, 262 F. Supp. 2d 687, 689 (S.D.W. Va. 2003);
Yi Ly v. Heu, 296 F. Supp. 2d 1009, 1011 (D. Minn. 2003);
In re Application of Adams ex. rel. Naik v. Naik, 363 F. Supp. 2d 1025, 1030 (N.D. Ill. 2005);
Wiezel v. Wiezel-Tyrnauer, 388 F. Supp. 2d 206 (S.D.N.Y. 2005), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 828];
Cantor v. Cohen, 442 F.3d 196 (4th Cir. 2006), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 827].
In Cantor, the only US appellate decision on Article 21, there was a dissenting judgment which found that the US implementing act did provide a jurisdictional basis for federal courts to hear an application with regard to an existing access right.
United Kingdom - England & Wales
In Re G. (A Minor) (Enforcement of Access Abroad) [1993] Fam 216 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 110].
More recently however the English Court of Appeal has suggested that it might be prepared to consider a more permissive interpretation:
Hunter v. Murrow [2005] [2005] 2 F.L.R. 1119, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 809].
Baroness Hale has recommended the elaboration of a procedure whereby the facilitation of rights of access in the United Kingdom under Article 21 could be contemplated at the same time as the return of the child under Article 12:
Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2006] UKHL 51[INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880].
Switzerland
Arrondissement judiciaire I Courterlary-Moutier-La Neuveville (Suisse) 11 October 1999, N° C 99 4313 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 454].
A more permissive interpretation of Article 21 has indeed been adopted elsewhere, see:
United Kingdom - Scotland
Donofrio v. Burrell, 2000 S.L.T. 1051 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 349].
Wider still is the interpretation adopted in New Zealand, see:
Gumbrell v. Jones [2001] NZFLR 593 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 446].
Australia
The position in Australia has evolved in the light of statutory reforms.
Initially a State Central Authority could only apply for an order that was ‘necessary or appropriate to organise or secure the effective exercise of rights of access to a child in Australia', see:
Director-General, Department of Families Youth & Community Care v. Reissner [1999] FamCA 1238, (1999) 25 Fam LR 330, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 278].
Subsequently it acquired the power to initiate proceedings to establish access rights:
State Central Authority & Peddar [2008] FamCA 519, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 1107];
State Central Authority & Quang [2009] FamCA 1038, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 1106].