CASO

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Nombre del caso

H.I. v. M.G. [1999] 2 ILRM 1; [2000] 1 IR 110

Referencia INCADAT

HC/E/IE 284

Tribunal

País

Irlanda

Nombre

Supreme Court of Ireland (Irlanda)

Instancia

última instancia

Estados involucrados

Estado requirente

Estados Unidos de América

Estado requerido

Irlanda

Fallo

Fecha

19 February 1999

Estado

Definitiva

Fundamentos

Derechos de custodia - art. 3

Fallo

Apelación concedida, solicitud desestimada

Artículo(s) del Convenio considerados

1 3 4 5 15 21

Artículo(s) del Convenio invocados en la decisión

5

Otras disposiciones

-

Jurisprudencia | Casos referidos

-

INCADAT comentario

Mecanismo de restitución del artículo 12

Derechos de custodia
¿Qué se entiende por derecho de custodia a los fines del Convenio?
Derechos de custodia imperfectos

SUMARIO

Sumario disponible en EN | FR | ES

Facts

The child, a boy, was 5 1/2 at the date of the alleged wrongful removal. He had lived in the United States all of his life. The parents underwent a Moslem wedding ceremony, but this was not recognised as a valid marriage under the law of the State of New York.

On 31 December 1996 the Family Court of Nassau granted the mother interim custody and a temporary protection order against the father. On 3 January 1997 the father filed a petition seeking visitation rights. On 3 February the mother took the child to Ireland, her State of origin. Between 19 January 1991 and 3 February 1997 the mother had held the status of an illegal alien in the United States. On 25 February 1997 the orders in favour of the mother were discharged and on 26 February the Family Court directed that the mother produce the child by 26 March.

On 20 March, the father applied for the return of the child under the Convention. On 28 October 1998, the Irish High Court held that, under New York State law, the father had inchoate rights of custody or access, therefore there was prima facie a basis on which to petition for the return of the child. The mother appealed against this finding.

Ruling

Appeal allowed and application dismissed; the removal of the child did not breach any rights of custody and was not therefore wrongful.

Grounds

Rights of Custody - Art. 3

Keane J., delivering the judgment of the majority, noted that the father, being in effect unmarried, had no ex lege right of custody under the law of New York because a declaration of paternity had not been made. Furthermore, there was no custody agreement having legal effect or order requiring the mother to obtain the father's consent or leave of the court before removing the child from the jurisdiction. The judge then turned to consider whether a custody right could be found to exist by any other means. He held first that an order rendered in New York after the removal could not serve either to make the original removal, or indeed the continued retention of the child, wrongful. However, he accepted that even if an applicant were not in possession of custody rights a removal may still be wrongful if custody or other proceedings were pending before a court in the child's state of habitual residence. This was held not to be so in the present case even though both parents had separately sought judicial intervention; the mother had in late December 1996 obtained a temporary protection order against the father and an interim custody order in her favour, while the father in early January 1997 had petitioned for contact. The majority further left open the possibility that the award of a right of access could, by implication, be treated as prohibiting the removal of a child without the consent of the non-custodial parent or further order of the court. However, the issue did not arise in the present case as no rights of access had yet been granted by the New York court. Keane J. finally held that while the Convention should be given a purposive and flexible interpretation it would go too far to accept that there was 'an undefined hinterland of inchoate rights of custody not attributed in any sense by the law of the requesting state to the party asserting them or to the court itself, but regard by the court of the requested state as being capable of protection under the terms of the Convention.' In this he held that the decision of the majority in Re B. (A Minor) (Abduction), and moreover the decision in Re O. (Child Abduction: Custody Rights), should not be followed. Barron J. on the other hand rejected the appeal, finding that the father did have rights of custody. He came to this conclusion on the basis that it was accepted that the respondent was the father of the child and as a result it was irrelevant that a declaration of paternity had not been made, which would have formally accorded him legal custody rights under the law of New York. Barron J. further held that the existence of legal custody rights was not the appropriate starting point for a claim under the Convention, rather it should first be determined what rights were actually being exercised at the date of the removal and then decide whether they amounted to rights of custody within the meaning of the Convention. Only then would it be necessary to consider the legal position.

INCADAT comment

The Supreme Court of Ireland returned to the concept of rights of custody again in W.P.P. v. S.R.W., [2000] IESC 11 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/IE 271].

In that case Keane C.J. impliedly rejected the approach endorsed in the English decision C. v. C. (Minors) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 163 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 35] which stated that a right of custody could exist where it was clear under the common law of a jurisdiction that an award of access carried with it an implied prohibition on the removal of the child out of that jurisdiction.

Keane C.J. held: "the return of children and their custodial parent to the jurisdiction in which they were formerly habitually resident merely so as to enable the non-custodial parent to exercise his rights of access is not warranted by the terms of the Convention".

For a consideration of both cases and divergence between Irish and English case law with regard to rights of custody see: McEleavy P.E., "Case Digest" [2000] International Family Law 185.

What is a Right of Custody for Convention Purposes?

Courts in an overwhelming majority of Contracting States have accepted that a right of veto over the removal of the child from the jurisdiction amounts to a right of custody for Convention purposes, see:

Australia
In the Marriage of Resina [1991] FamCA 33, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 257];

State Central Authority v. Ayob (1997) FLC 92-746, 21 Fam. LR 567 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 232];

Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 September 1999, Family Court of Australia (Brisbane) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 294];

Austria
2 Ob 596/91, OGH, 05 February 1992, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 375];

Canada
Thomson v. Thomson [1994] 3 SCR 551, 6 RFL (4th) 290 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 11].

The Supreme Court did draw a distinction between a non-removal clause in an interim custody order and in a final order. It suggested that were a non-removal clause in a final custody order to be regarded as a custody right for Convention purposes, that could have serious implications for the mobility rights of the primary carer.

Thorne v. Dryden-Hall, (1997) 28 RFL (4th) 297 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 12];

Decision of 15 December 1998, [1999] R.J.Q. 248 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 334];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654, [1989] 2 All ER 465, [1989] 1 FLR 403, [1989] Fam Law 228 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 34];

Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880];

France
Ministère Public c. M.B. 79 Rev. crit. 1990, 529, note Y. Lequette [INCADAT cite: HC/E/FR 62];

Germany
2 BvR 1126/97, Bundesverfassungsgericht, (Federal Constitutional Court), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 338];

10 UF 753/01, Oberlandesgericht Dresden, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 486];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Bordera v. Bordera 1995 SLT 1176 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 183];

A.J. v. F.J. [2005] CSIH 36, 2005 1 SC 428 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 803];

South Africa
Sonderup v. Tondelli 2001 (1) SA 1171 (CC), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ZA 309];

Switzerland
5P.1/1999, Tribunal fédéral suisse, (Swiss Supreme Court), 29 March 1999, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CH 427].

United States of America
In the United States, the Federal Courts of Appeals were divided on the appropriate interpretation to give between 2000 and 2010.

A majority followed the 2nd Circuit in adopting a narrow interpretation, see:

Croll v. Croll, 229 F.3d 133 (2d Cir., 2000; cert. den. Oct. 9, 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 313];

Gonzalez v. Gutierrez, 311 F.3d 942 (9th Cir 2002) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 493];

Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491, 500 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 157 L. Ed. 2d 732, 124 S. Ct. 805 (2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494];

Abbott v. Abbott, 542 F.3d 1081 (5th Cir. 2008), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 989].

The 11th Circuit however endorsed the standard international interpretation.

Furnes v. Reeves, 362 F.3d 702 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 578].

The matter was settled, at least where an applicant parent has a right to decide the child's country of residence, or the court in the State of habitual residence is seeking to protect its own jurisdiction pending further decrees, by the US Supreme Court endorsing the standard international interpretation. 

Abbott v. Abbott, 130 S. Ct. 1983 (2010), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 1029].

The standard international interpretation has equally been accepted by the European Court of Human Rights, see:

Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No. 41615/07, 8 January 2009 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1001].

Confirmed by the Grand Chamber: Neulinger & Shuruk v. Switzerland, No 41615/07, 6 July 2010 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1323].


Right to Object to a Removal

Where an individual does not have a right of veto over the removal of a child from the jurisdiction, but merely a right to object and to apply to a court to prevent such a removal, it has been held in several jurisdictions that this is not enough to amount to a custody right for Convention purposes:

Canada
W.(V.) v. S.(D.), 134 DLR 4th 481 (1996), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA17];

Ireland
W.P.P. v. S.R.W. [2001] ILRM 371, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 271];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V.-B. (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1999] 2 FLR 192, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 261];

S. v. H. (Abduction: Access Rights) [1998] Fam 49 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 36];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Pirrie v. Sawacki 1997 SLT 1160, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 188].

This interpretation has also been upheld by the Court of Justice of the European Union:
Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].

The European Court held that to find otherwise would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the sole custodian.

For academic commentary see:

P. Beaumont & P. McEleavy The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction, Oxford, OUP, 1999, p. 75 et seq.;

M. Bailey The Right of a Non-Custodial Parent to an Order for Return of a Child Under the Hague Convention; Canadian Journal of Family Law, 1996, p. 287;

C. Whitman 'Croll v Croll: The Second Circuit Limits 'Custody Rights' Under the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction' 2001 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 605.

Inchoate Rights of Custody

The reliance on 'inchoate custody rights', to afford a Convention remedy to applicants who have actively cared for removed or retained children, but who do not possess legal custody rights, was first identified in the English decision:

Re B. (A Minor) (Abduction) [1994] 2 FLR 249 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 4],

and has subsequently been followed in that jurisdiction in:

Re O. (Child Abduction: Custody Rights) [1997] 2 FLR 702, [1997] Fam Law 781 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 5];

Re G. (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2002] 2 FLR 703 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 505].

The concept has been the subject of judicial consideration in:

Re W. (Minors) (Abduction: Father's Rights) [1999] Fam 1 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/Uke 503];

Re B. (A Minor) (Abduction: Father's Rights) [1999] Fam 1 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 504];

Re G. (Child Abduction) (Unmarried Father: Rights of Custody) [2002] EWHC 2219 (Fam); [2002] ALL ER (D) 79 (Nov), [2003] 1 FLR 252 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 506].

In one English first instance decision: Re J. (Abduction: Declaration of Wrongful Removal) [1999] 2 FLR 653 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 265], it was questioned whether the concept was in accordance with the decision of the House of Lords in Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 2] where it was held that de facto custody was not sufficient to amount to rights of custody for the purposes of the Convention.

The concept of 'inchoate custody rights', has attracted support and opposition in other Contracting States.

The concept has attracted support in a New Zealand first instance case: Anderson v. Paterson [2002] NZFLR 641 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 471].

However, the concept was specifically rejected by the majority of the Irish Supreme Court in the decision of: H.I. v. M.G. [1999] 2 ILRM 1; [2000] 1 IR 110 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 284].

Keane J. stated that it would go too far to accept that there was 'an undefined hinterland of inchoate rights of custody not attributed in any sense by the law of the requesting state to the party asserting them or to the court itself, but regard by the court of the requested state as being capable of protection under the terms of the Convention.'

The Court of Justice of the European Union has subsequently upheld the position adopted by the Irish Courts:

Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].

In its ruling the European Court noted that the attribution of rights of custody, which were not accorded to an unmarried father under national law, would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the mother. 

This formulation leaves open the status of ‘incohate rights’ in a EU Member State where the concept had become part of national law.  The United Kingdom (England & Wales) would fall into this category, but it must be recalled that pursuant to the terms of Protocol (No. 30) on the Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union to Poland and to the United Kingdom (OJ C 115/313, 9 May 2008), the CJEU could not in any event make a finding of inconsistency with regard to UK law vis-a-vis Charter rights. 

For academic criticism of the concept of inchoate rights see: Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' Oxford, OUP, 1999, at p. 60.