AFFAIRE

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Nom de l'affaire

RÅ 1996 ref 52, A.F.J. v. T.J., 9 May 1996, Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden

Référence INCADAT

HC/E/SE 80

Juridiction

Pays

Suède

Nom

Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden at Regeringsratten (Suède)

Degré

Instance Suprême

États concernés

État requérant

États-Unis d'Amérique

État requis

Suède

Décision

Date

9 May 1996

Statut

Définitif

Motifs

Résidence habituelle - art. 3 | Droit de garde - art. 3

Décision

Recours accueilli, retour refusé

Article(s) de la Convention visé(s)

3

Article(s) de la Convention visé(s) par le dispositif

3

Autres dispositions

-

Jurisprudence | Affaires invoquées

-

INCADAT commentaire

Objectifs et domaine d’application de la Convention

Résidence habituelle
Résidence habituelle
Un enfant peut-il se trouver sans résidence habituelle?
Un enfant peut-il avoir plusieurs résidences habituelles?
Accords de garde alternée et accords / décisions définissant la compétence

Mécanisme de retour

Droit de garde
Interprétation autonome du « droit de garde » et de « l'illicéité »

RÉSUMÉ

Résumé disponible en EN | FR | ES

Facts

The child, a girl, was 7 2/3 at the date of the alleged wrongful retention. The parents were divorced. A shuttle custody arrangement was established whereby the child would continually move between Sweden and the United States and the custody of her mother and father every few years.

The parties also included a clause that the Commonwealth of Virginia would have exclusive jurisdiction to determine all matters relating to the custody of the child. The parties also stipulated that they would be bound by the terms of the Hague Convention.

In accordance with the agreement the child was due to return to the United States, after two years in Sweden, on 21 August 1995. The mother however refused to return the child. The father initiated a return petition.

On 6 October 1995 the County Administrative Court ordered the return of the child. On 19 December this decision was upheld by the Administrative Court of Appeals. The mother appealed to the Supreme Administrative Court.

Ruling

Appeal allowed and application dismissed; there was no wrongful retention as the child had acquired a habitual residence in Sweden after two years' residence there.

Grounds

Habitual Residence - Art. 3

The issue of habitual residence is primarily an evaluation of such objective, verifiable conditions as the length of the period of residence, existing social bonds, and other circumstances of a personal or professional character that can indicate a more permanent tie to one country or another. In the case of a young child the habitual residence of the custodian and other relations of family and social character are of decisive importance. After two years the child had acquired a habitual residence in Sweden.

Rights of Custody - Art. 3

Breach of Custody Rights The question whether or not a retention is wrongful shall be determined in accordance with the law of the country in which the child is habitually resident at the time of the retention.

INCADAT comment

Habitual Residence

The interpretation of the central concept of habitual residence (Preamble, Art. 3, Art. 4) has proved increasingly problematic in recent years with divergent interpretations emerging in different jurisdictions. There is a lack of uniformity as to whether in determining habitual residence the emphasis should be exclusively on the child, with regard paid to the intentions of the child's care givers, or primarily on the intentions of the care givers. At least partly as a result, habitual residence may appear a very flexible connecting factor in some Contracting States yet much more rigid and reflective of long term residence in others.

Any assessment of the interpretation of habitual residence is further complicated by the fact that cases focusing on the concept may concern very different factual situations. For example habitual residence may arise for consideration following a permanent relocation, or a more tentative move, albeit one which is open-ended or potentially open-ended, or indeed the move may be for a clearly defined period of time.

General Trends:

United States Federal Appellate case law may be taken as an example of the full range of interpretations which exist with regard to habitual residence.

Child Centred Focus

The United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit has advocated strongly for a child centred approach in the determination of habitual residence:

Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, 125 ALR Fed. 703 (6th Cir. 1993) (6th Cir. 1993) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 142]

Robert v. Tesson, 507 F.3d 981 (6th Cir. 2007) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/US 935].

See also:

Villalta v. Massie, No. 4:99cv312-RH (N.D. Fla. Oct. 27, 1999) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 221].

Combined Child's Connection / Parental Intention Focus

The United States Courts of Appeals for the 3rd and 8th Circuits, have espoused a child centred approach but with reference equally paid to the parents' present shared intentions.

The key judgment is that of Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217 (3d Cir. 1995) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 83].

See also:

Silverman v. Silverman, 338 F.3d 886 (8th Cir. 2003) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 530];

Karkkainen v. Kovalchuk, 445 F.3d 280 (3rd Cir. 2006) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 879].

In the latter case a distinction was drawn between the situation of very young children, where particular weight was placed on parental intention(see for example: Baxter v. Baxter, 423 F.3d 363 (3rd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 808]) and that of older children where the impact of parental intention was more limited.

Parental Intention Focus

The judgment of the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067 (9th Cir. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 301] has been highly influential in providing that there should ordinarily be a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence before a child can acquire a new one.

This interpretation has been endorsed and built upon in other Federal appellate decisions so that where there was not a shared intention on the part of the parents as to the purpose of the move this led to an existing habitual residence being retained, even though the child had been away from that jurisdiction for an extended period of time. See for example:

Holder v. Holder, 392 F.3d 1009 (9th Cir 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 777]: United States habitual residence retained after 8 months of an intended 4 year stay in Germany;

Ruiz v. Tenorio, 392 F.3d 1247 (11th Cir. 2004) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 780]: United States habitual residence retained during 32 month stay in Mexico;

Tsarbopoulos v. Tsarbopoulos, 176 F. Supp.2d 1045 (E.D. Wash. 2001) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 482]: United States habitual residence retained during 27 month stay in Greece.

The Mozes approach has also been approved of by the Federal Court of Appeals for the 2nd and 7th Circuits:

Gitter v. Gitter, 396 F.3d 124 (2nd Cir. 2005) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 776];

Koch v. Koch, 450 F.3d 703 (2006 7th Cir.) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USf 878].

It should be noted that within the Mozes approach the 9th Circuit did acknowledge that given enough time and positive experience, a child's life could become so firmly embedded in the new country as to make it habitually resident there notwithstanding lingering parental intentions to the contrary.

Other Jurisdictions

There are variations of approach in other jurisdictions:

Austria
The Supreme Court of Austria has ruled that a period of residence of more than six months in a State will ordinarily be characterized as habitual residence, and even if it takes place against the will of the custodian of the child (since it concerns a factual determination of the centre of life).

8Ob121/03g, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 548].

Canada
In the Province of Quebec, a child centred focus is adopted:

In Droit de la famille 3713, No 500-09-010031-003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 651], the Cour d'appel de Montréal held that the determination of the habitual residence of a child was a purely factual issue to be decided in the light of the circumstances of the case with regard to the reality of the child's life, rather than that of his parents. The actual period of residence must have endured for a continuous and not insignificant period of time; the child must have a real and active link to the place, but there is no minimum period of residence which is specified.

Germany
A child centred, factual approach is also evident in German case law:

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 944].

This has led to the Federal Constitutional Court accepting that a habitual residence may be acquired notwithstanding the child having been wrongfully removed to the new State of residence:

Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2 BvR 1206/98, 29. Oktober 1998  [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 233].

The Constitutional Court upheld the finding of the Higher Regional Court that the children had acquired a habitual residence in France, notwithstanding the nature of their removal there. This was because habitual residence was a factual concept and during their nine months there, the children had become integrated into the local environment.

Israel
Alternative approaches have been adopted when determining the habitual residence of children. On occasion, strong emphasis has been placed on parental intentions. See:

Family Appeal 1026/05 Ploni v. Almonit [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 865];

Family Application 042721/06 G.K. v Y.K. [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 939].

However, reference has been made to a more child centred approach in other cases. See:

decision of the Supreme Court in C.A. 7206/03, Gabai v. Gabai, P.D. 51(2)241;

FamA 130/08 H v H [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/Il 922].

New Zealand
In contrast to the Mozes approach the requirement of a settled intention to abandon an existing habitual residence was specifically rejected by a majority of the New Zealand Court of Appeal. See

S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 816].

Switzerland
A child centred, factual approach is evident in Swiss case law:

5P.367/2005/ast, Bundesgericht, II. Zivilabteilung (Tribunal Fédéral, 2ème Chambre Civile) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841].

United Kingdom
The standard approach is to consider the settled intention of the child's carers in conjunction with the factual reality of the child's life.

Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 2]. For academic commentary on the different models of interpretation given to habitual residence. See:

R. Schuz, "Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice", Child and Family Law Quarterly Vol 13, No. 1, 2001, p. 1;

R. Schuz, "Policy Considerations in Determining Habitual Residence of a Child and the Relevance of Context", Journal of Transnational Law and Policy Vol. 11, 2001, p. 101.

Can a Child be left without a Habitual Residence?

In early Convention case law there was a clear reluctance on the part of appellate courts to find that a child did not have a habitual residence.  This was because of the concern that such a conclusion would render the instrument inoperable, see:

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re F. (A Minor) (Child Abduction) [1992] 1 FLR 548 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 40];

Australia
Cooper v. Casey (1995) FLC 92-575 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 104].

However, in more recent years there has been a recognition that situations do exist where it is not possible to regard a child as being habitually resident anywhere:

Australia
D.W. & Director-General, Department of Child Safety [2006] FamCA 93, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 870].

In this case the majority accepted that their decision could be said to deny the child of the benefit of the Convention. However, the majority argued that the interests of children generally could be adversely affected if courts were too willing to find that a parent who had attempted a reconciliation in a foreign country, was to be found, together with the child, to have become "habitually resident" in that foreign country.

United Kingdom - England & Wales
W. and B. v. H. (Child Abduction: Surrogacy) [2002] 1 FLR 1008 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 470];

United Kingdom - Scotland
Robertson v. Robertson 1998 SLT 468 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 194];

D. v. D. 2002 SC 33 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 351];

New Zealand
S.K. v. K.P. [2005] 3 NZLR 590, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 816];

United States of America
Delvoye v. Lee, 329 F.3d 330 (3rd Cir. 2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 529];

Ferraris v. Alexander, 125 Cal. App. 4th 1417 (2005) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/US 797].

Can a Child have more than one Habitual Residence?

Academic commentators have long held that if the factual nature of the connecting factor is to be respected then situations may arise where an individual is habitually resident in more than one place at a particular time, see in particular:

Clive E. M. ‘The Concept of Habitual Residence' Juridical Review (1997), p. 137.

However, the Court of Appeal in England has accepted in the context of divorce jurisdiction that it is possible for an adult to be habitually resident in two places simultaneously, see:

Ikimi v. Ikimi [2001] EWCA Civ 873, [2002] Fam 72.

Courts in Convention proceedings have though held to the view that a child can only have one habitual residence, see for example:

Canada
SS-C c GC, Cour supérieure (Montréal), 15 août 2003, n° 500-04-033270-035, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 916];

Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800];

United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re V. (Abduction: Habitual Residence) [1995] 2 FLR 992, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 45].

In this case where the children's lives alternated between Greece and England the court held that their habitual residence also alternated.  The court ruled out their having concurrent habitual residences in both Greece and England.

United Kingdom - Northern Ireland
Re C.L. (A Minor); J.S. v. C.L., transcript, 25 August 1998, High Court of Northern Ireland, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKn 390];

United States of America
Friedrich v. Friedrich, 983 F.2d 1396, (6th Cir. 1993), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 142].

Shuttle Custody Agreement & Agreements / Courts Order fixing Jurisdiction

Convention case law reveals several examples of cases where parties or a court seek to pre-empt future litigation over the appropriate venue by fixing jurisdiction in the Contracting State currently seized of the action. In such cases it is usually envisaged that the child will move for an extended time to another State, often pursuant to a ‘shuttle custody arrangement,' before returning to the designated home State.

Experience has shown however that disputes will frequently arise as to where the child is habitually resident if he or she has spent an extended period out of the designated home State.

In cases where the child is not returned to the designated home State attempts to enforce a jurisdiction agreement in the other Contracting State have failed, see:

Sweden
A.F.J. v. T.J., Supreme Administrative Court (Regeringsrätten) RÅ 1996 ref 52, 9 May 1996 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/SE 80];

Canada
Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800].

However, in a case where a child was removed, with his willing participation, to the designated home State the order as to jurisdiction was upheld in the face of a subsequent return application, see:

Israel
Family case 107064/99 K.L v. N.D.S., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IL 835].

For an example of a case where the parents sought to enter a jurisdiction clause in a custody agreement yet not restrict any evolution in the children's habitual residence, see:

New Zealand

Winters v. Cowen [2002] NZFLR 927 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 473].

The interpretation given by the Regeringsratten (Sweden) in A.F.J. v. T.J., that a child's habitual residence will change notwithstanding a jurisdiction clause in a shuttle custody arrangement mirrors that adopted by:

the Court of Session in Scotland in Watson v. Jamieson 1998 SLT 180 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKs 75];

the New Zealand Court of Appeal in Punter v Secretary for Justice [2004] 2 NZLR 28 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 583], and,

the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (Canada) in Wilson v. Huntley (2005) A.C.W.S.J. 7084; 138 A.C.W.S. (3d) 1107 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/CA 800].

Reference should equally be made to the Report of the Third Special Commission Meeting to Review the Operation of the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction (17 - 21 March 1997) at para 16:

'Alternating custody agreements, or 'shuttle agreements' might give rise to problems in determining the habitual residence of the child. The question arises whether such agreements may determine habitual residence in a way that would be binding on courts requested to order the return of the child, eg by including an additional clause that non-return of the child on the date agreed upon constitutes unlawful retention under the Convention or other kinds of choice of court clauses. Such choice of court clauses do not fall to be recognised under the Convention, however, and parties to such an agreement should not have the power to create a habitual residence that does not match with the factual habitual residence of the child. This is, firstly, because the concept of 'habitual residence' under the Convention is regarded as a purely factual matter and, secondly, because the Convention provides for a very specific remedy applicable in cases of emergency and is not meant to solve parental disputes on the merits of custody rights.'

For academic commentary see:

Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' OUP, Oxford, 1999 at p.p. 99-101;

Schiratzki J. 'Friends at Odds - Construing Habitual Residence for Children in Sweden and the United States,' International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family (2001), 297 - 326;

Schuz R. ‘Habitual Residence of Children under the Hague Child Abduction Convention: Theory and Practice' (2001) Child and Family Law Quarterly 1.

Autonomous Interpretation of 'Rights of Custody' And 'Wrongfulness'

Conflicts have on occasion emerged between courts in different Contracting States as to the outcomes in individual cases.  This has primarily been with regard to the interpretation of custody rights or the separate, but related issue of the ‘wrongfulness' of a removal or retention.

Conflict Based on Scope of ‘Rights of Custody'

Whilst the overwhelming majority of Contracting States have accepted a uniform interpretation of rights of custody for the purposes of the Convention, some differences do exist.A

For example: in New Zealand a very broad view prevails - Gross v. Boda [1995] 1 NZLR 569 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 66].  But in parts of the United States of America a narrow view is favoured - Croll v. Croll, 229 F.3d 133 (2d Cir., 2000; cert. den. Oct. 9, 2001) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 313].

Consequently where a return petition involves either of these States a conflict may arise with the other Contracting State as to whether a right of custody does or does not exist and therefore whether the removal or retention is wrongful.

New Zealand / United Kingdom - England & Wales
Hunter v. Murrow [2005] EWCA Civ 976, [2005] 2 F.L.R. 1119 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 809].

A positive determination of wrongfulness by the courts in the child's State of habitual residence in New Zealand was rejected by the English Court of Appeal which found the applicant father to have no rights of custody for the purposes of the Convention.

United Kingdom  - Scotland / United States of America (Virginia)
Fawcett v. McRoberts, 326 F.3d 491, 500 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 157 L. Ed. 2d 732, 124 S. Ct. 805 (2003) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 494].

For the purposes of Scots law the removal of the child was in breach of actually exercised rights of custody.  This view was however rejected by the US Court of Appeals for the 4th Circuit.

United States of America / United Kingdom - England & Wales
Re P. (A Child) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [2004] EWCA CIV 971, [2005] Fam. 293, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 591].

Making a return order the English Court of Appeal held that the rights given to the father by the New York custody order were rights of custody for Convention purposes, whether or not New York state or federal law so regarded them whether for domestic purposes or Convention purposes.

Conflict Based on Interpretation of ‘Wrongfulness'

United Kingdom - England & Wales
The Court of Appeal has traditionally held the view that the issue of wrongfulness is a matter for law of the forum, regardless of the law of the child's State of habitual residence.

Re F. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights Abroad) [1995] Fam 224 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 8].

Whilst the respondent parent had the right under Colorado law to remove their child out of the jurisdiction unilaterally the removal was nevertheless regarded as being wrongful by the English Court of Appeal.

Re P. (A Child) (Abduction: Acquiescence) [2004] EWCA CIV 971, [2005] Fam. 293, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 591];

Hunter v. Murrow [2005] EWCA Civ 976, [2005] 2 F.L.R. 1119 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 809].

In the most extreme example this reasoning was applied notwithstanding an Article 15 declaration to the contrary, see:

Deak v. Deak [2006] EWCA Civ 830 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 866].

However, this finding was overturned by the House of Lords which unanimously held that where an Article 15 declaration is sought the ruling of the foreign court as to the content of the rights held by the applicant must be treated as conclusive, save in exceptional cases where, for example, the ruling has been obtained by fraud or in breach of the rules of natural justice:

Re D. (A Child) (Abduction: Foreign Custody Rights) [2006] UKHL 51, [2007] 1 A.C. 619, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 880].

Elsewhere there has been an express or implied preference for the general application of the law of the child's State of habitual residence to the issue of wrongfulness, see:

Australia
S. Hanbury-Brown and R. Hanbury-Brown v. Director General of Community Services (Central Authority) (1996) FLC 92-671, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AU 69];

Austria
3Ob89/05t, Oberster Gerichtshof, 11/05/2005 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 855];

6Ob183/97y, Oberster Gerichtshof, 19/06/1997 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/AT 557];

Canada
Droit de la famille 2675, Cour supérieure de Québec, 22 April 1997, No 200-04-003138-979[INCADAT cite : HC/E/CA 666];

Germany
11 UF 121/03, Oberlandesgericht Hamm, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 822];

2 UF 115/02, Oberlandesgericht Karlsruhe, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/DE 944];

United States of America
Carrascosa v. McGuire, 520 F.3d 249 (3rd Cir. 2008), [INCADAT cite: HC/E/USf 970].

The United States Court of Appeals for the 3rd Circuit refused to recognize a Spanish non-return order, finding that the Spanish courts had applied their own law rather than the law of New Jersey in assessing whether the applicant father held rights of custody.

The European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR)
The ECrtHR has been prepared to intervene where interpretation of rights of custody has been misapplied:

Monory v. Hungary & Romania, (2005) 41 E.H.R.R. 37, [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 802].

In Monory the ECrtHR found that there had been a breach of the right to family life in Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) where the Romanian courts had so misinterpreted Article 3 of the Hague Convention that the guarantees of the latter instrument itself were violated.