CASO

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Nombre del caso

X. v. Latvia (Application No. 27853/09), Grand Chamber

Referencia INCADAT

HC/E/LV 1234

Tribunal

Instancia

Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos (TEDH)

Estados involucrados

Estado requirente

Australia

Estado requerido

Letonia

Fallo

Fecha

26 November 2013

Estado

Definitiva

Fundamentos

Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos (CEDH) | Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos (CEDH) | Cuestiones procesales

Fallo

-

Artículo(s) del Convenio considerados

3 11 13(1)(b) 20

Artículo(s) del Convenio invocados en la decisión

13(1)(b) 20

Otras disposiciones
Arts 8, 8-1, 8-2, 41 of the ECHR; Art. 644 of the Latvian Civil Procedure Act; Art. 24(2) of the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights; Brussels IIa Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003)
Jurisprudencia | Casos referidos

-

INCADAT comentario

Interrelación con instrumentos internacionales y regionales y Derecho interno

Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos (CEDH)
Fallos del Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos (TEDH)

Mecanismo de restitución del artículo 12

Derechos de custodia
Derechos de custodia imperfectos

Excepciones a la restitución

Grave riesgo de daño
Sustracción por quien ejerce el cuidado principal del menor
Protección de derechos humanos y libertades fundamentales
Protección de los derechos humanos y las libertades fundamentales

SUMARIO

Sumario disponible en EN | FR | ES

Facts

The application concerned a child born in Australia in February 2005 to a Latvian mother and an Australian father. The mother had met the father in early 2004 and moved into his flat at the end of the year when she was in a late stage of pregnancy. The relationship between the parties deteriorated. The mother continued to live in the father's apartment as a tenant.

On 17 July 2008 the mother left Australia with the child and returned to Latvia without the father's consent. On 22 September a return petition was filed with the Latvian Central Authority. On 6 November the Family Court of Australia ruled that the parents had joint parental responsibility for the child. The mother did not appeal this ruling.

On 19 November the Rīga City Zemgale District Court ordered the return of the child. It held that the Australian decision on the father's parental responsibility was not subject to review by the Latvian courts and dismissed the mother's claim that returning to Australia would expose the child to psychological harm.

On appeal, the mother relied on a psychologist's report which stated that the child could suffer psychological trauma as a result of being separated from her mother. She argued that in law and in practice she had been the child's sole guardian prior to their departure from Australia and alleged that the father had mistreated them.

She also claimed that the father had previous convictions and had been charged with corruption, allegations which had not been investigated by the lower court. Neither had the court enquired into the measures which would guarantee the child's safety on being returned to Australia. Furthermore, the mother pointed out that the child attended pre-school activities in Latvia and spoke Latvian as her native language. In Australia, the mother would be unemployed and would not be able to support herself and the child.

On 26 January 2009 the Rīga Regional Court (Rīgas Apgabaltiesa) dismissed the mother's appeal. It held that there was no evidence to substantiate her allegations of mistreatment and pending criminal charges. Furthermore, as the issue before the court concerned the return of the child under the Hague Convention and not custody rights, it was not required to determine the risk of psychological harm.

There was no evidence to suggest that returning to Australia would threaten the child's safety as Australian legislation provided for the security of children and their protection against mistreatment within the family. The mother applied to suspend the return order for six to twelve months.

In March 2009, the father went to Latvia in an attempt to see the child. He executed the return order himself. He took the child and drove to Tallinn, Estonia in order to travel back to Australia. At the mother's request, the Latvian police instigated criminal abduction proceedings but did not bring charges against the father.

In September 2009, the Family Court of Australia awarded the father sole parental responsibility. The mother was permitted to visit the child under the supervision of a social worker. However, the court prohibited her from speaking to the child in Latvian and, until the child's eleventh birthday, from communicating with any childcare facility, school or parent of a child attending the same institution.

Before the European Court of Human Rights, the mother complained under Article 6 that the proceedings before the Latvian courts had not been fair. She argued that the courts had erred in interpreting and applying the Hague Convention. Furthermore, that they had disregarded her evidence concerning the best interests of the child and the fact that she was the child's sole guardian at the time of the removal from Australia.

Instead, they had relied solely on the evidence of the father and had refused to obtain the evidence requested by the mother, thereby infringing the principle of equality of arms. The Court considered the mother's allegations under Article 8 which protected her right to respect for family life.

On 13 December 2011, by a majority of five to two, the Third Section of the ECtHR held that Latvia had violated Article 8 of the ECHR in failing to take account of various relevant factors in assessing the best interests of the child. The Court also awarded the mother compensation under Article 41, see: X. v. Latvia (Application No 27853/09), [2012] 1 F.L.R. 860 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1146].

On 13 March 2012 the Latvian Government requested that the case be referred to the Grand Chamber, in accordance with Article 43 ECHR. This request was accepted by the panel of the Grand Chamber on 4 June 2012. According to a Latvian press report, referred to before the Grand Chamber, the mother had returned to Australia and was in regular contact with her daughter, and had been able to see her without a social worker being present.

Ruling

The Grand Chamber held by 9 votes to 8 that there had been a violation of Article 8 of the ECHR.

Grounds

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)


Judge Pinto de Albuquerque in his opinion stated that the facts of the case did not amount to a child abduction, since the father had no parental rights prior to the removal of the child from Australia. He only applied for, and gained, "custodial rights" after the removal of the child.

Therefore, at the time of the removal the mother was de jure the sole person with parental responsibility, including custodial rights, over the child. The judge held that the Australian decision of 6 November 2008 could not be construed in such a way as to circumvent the time requirement of Article 3(a) of the Hague Convention and to substantiate ex post facto an otherwise unfounded return claim.

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

The Grand Chamber held by 9 votes to 8 that there had been a violation of Article 8 of the ECHR. The judgment of the Grand Chamber was supported by 8 judges. The 9th member of the "majority" delivered a concurring opinion in which he agreed with the finding of a violation of Article 8, but disagreed with "the equivocal principles set out by the majority in paragraphs 105-108 and its insufficient assessment of the facts of the case". 8 judges dissented, but their difference of opinion related not to the general principles to be applied in cases of child abduction covered by the Hague Convention, on which they were in full agreement with the other judges, but the assessment of whether the national courts of Latvia had sufficiently complied with those procedural requirements.

General Principles:  
The Grand Chamber reiterated that in the area of international child abduction, the obligations imposed by Article 8 of the ECHR on Contracting States must be interpreted in the light of the requirements of the 1980 Hague Convention, the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the relevant rules and principles of international law applicable in relations between the Contracting Parties.

Such consideration of international provisions should not result in conflict or opposition between the different treaties, provided that the ECrtHR was able to perform its task in full, namely "to ensure the observance of the engagements undertaken by the High Contracting Parties" to the ECHR, by interpreting and applying the ECHR's provisions in a manner that rendered its guarantees practical and effective.

In this the decisive issue was whether a fair balance between the competing interests at stake - those of the child, the parents, and of public order - had been struck, within the margin of appreciation afforded to States in such matters, taking into account that the best interests of the child must be of primary consideration and that the objectives of prevention and immediate return corresponded to a specific conception of "the best interests of the child".

The Grand Chamber noted the broad consensus that in all decisions concerning children their best interests must be paramount, was associated in the Hague Convention with the restoration of the status quo. This was by means of a decision ordering a wrongfully removed or retained child's immediate return to his country of habitual residence, while taking account of the fact that non-return may sometimes be justified for objective reasons corresponding to the child's interests.

The Grand Chamber affirmed that the child's best interests did not coincide with those of the father or the mother, except in so far as they necessarily had in common various assessment criteria related to the child's individual personality, background and specific situation. The child's best interests could not be understood in an identical manner irrespective of whether the court was examining a request for a child's return in pursuance of the Hague Convention, or ruling on the merits of an application for custody or parental authority.

The Grand Chamber then specified that in the context of Hague return proceedings, the concept of the best interests of the child must be evaluated in the light of the exceptions provided for by the Hague Convention. The Grand Chamber reiterated that it did not propose to substitute its own assessment for that of the domestic courts. But, it must satisfy itself that the decision-making process leading to the adoption of the impugned measures by the domestic courts was fair and allowed those concerned to present their case fully, and that the best interests of the child were defended.

The Grand Chamber acknowledged that the earlier Grand Chamber judgment in the case of Neulinger and Shuruk v. Switzerland (Application No 41615/07) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E 1323] may and had indeed been read as suggesting that domestic courts were required to conduct an in-depth examination of the entire family situation and of a whole series of factors.

However, the Grand Chamber clarified that its finding in paragraph 139 of the Neulinger and Shuruk judgment did not in itself set out any principle for the application of the Hague Convention by the domestic courts. The eight dissenting judges specified: "[...]we agree that despite the undeniable impact that return of the child may have on the rights of the child and parents, Article 8 of the Convention does not call for an in-depth examination by the judicial or other authorities of the requested State of the entire family situation of the child in question".

In contrast, Judge Pinto de Albuquerque concluded: "Justice for children, even summary and provisional justice, can only be done with a view to the entirety of the very tangible case at hand, i.e. of the actual circumstances of each child involved. Only an in-depth or "effective" evaluation of the child's situation in the specific context of the return application can provide such justice". He further specified that only those issues directly related to the child's abduction raised by the return application could be addressed by the court in the host country, and then only in so far as they related to the urgent and provisional decision on the child's immediate future. This was and remained the Neulinger and Shuruk test.

The Grand Chamber stated that a harmonious interpretation of the ECHR and the Hague Convention could be achieved provided two conditions were observed. Firstly, the factors capable of constituting an exception to the child's immediate return must genuinely be taken into account by the requested court. Then that court must make a decision that was sufficiently reasoned in order to enable the ECrtHR to verify that those questions had been effectively examined. Secondly, such factors must be evaluated in the light of Article 8 of the ECHR.

Article 8 of the ECHR imposes on domestic authorities a particular procedural obligation; when assessing an application for a child's return, the courts must not only consider arguable allegations of a "grave risk" for the child in the event of return, but must also make a ruling giving specific reasons in the light of the circumstances of the case. Similarly, the eight dissenting judges stated that Article 8 required national authorities, when examining a case under Article 13(1)(b), to consider arguable claims of a "grave risk" for the child in the event of his or her return and, where such a claim was found not to be established, to make a ruling giving sufficient reasons for the exception's rejection.

The Grand Chamber affirmed that both a refusal to take account of objections to return capable of falling within the scope of the exceptions, as well as insufficient reasoning in a ruling dismissing such objections, would be contrary to the requirements of Article 8 of the ECHR and the aim and purpose of the Hague Convention. The Grand Chamber made clear that due consideration of such allegations, demonstrated by reasoning that was not automatic and stereotyped, but sufficiently detailed in the light of the exceptions set out in the Hague Convention, was necessary.

It equally noted that the exceptions must be interpreted strictly. Furthermore, the Grand Chamber added that as the Preamble to the Hague Convention provided for children's return "to the State of their habitual residence", domestic courts must satisfy themselves that adequate safeguards were convincingly provided in that country, and, in the event of a known risk, that tangible protection measures were put in place.

In his opinion, Judge Pinto de Albuquerque stated that the sociological shift in Hague Convention cases from a non-custodial abductor to a custodial abductor, who was usually the primary caregiver, warranted a more individualised, fact-sensitive determination of return petitions in the light of a purposive and evolutive approach to the Convention's defences. A restrictive reading of the defences, based on an out-dated, unilateral and over-simplistic assumption in favour of the left-behind parent and which ignored the real situation of the child and his or her family and envisaged a mere "punitive" approach to the abducting parent's conduct, would defeat the ultimate purposes of the Hague Convention, especially in the case of abduction by the child's primary caregiver.

Such a construction of the Hague Convention would be at odds with the human rights, and especially the Article 8 ECHR rights, of the abducted child in Hague return proceedings. The judge held that respect for such rights undeniably merged into the best interests of the child, but he recalled that the urgent, summary and provisional nature of the Hague remedy should not be ignored.

Application to the Facts:
Turning to the facts of the case, the Grand Chamber (eight of the judges of the majority) noted that not only the submission of the return application to the Latvian authorities, but also the domestic proceedings and the child's return to Australia, took place within a period of less than one year. At first instance, and on appeal, the domestic courts were unanimous as to the response to be given to the father's return application.

At first instance the Rīga City Zemgale District Court had dismissed, in a reasoned manner, the mother's objections to the child's return on the basis of Article 13. The Grand Chamber noted that the District Court had examined the evidence submitted by the parties, but had refused to request information from the Australian authorities about the father's previous convictions.

The Grand Chamber noted that on appeal the mother presented new evidence in the form of a certificate prepared by a psychologist she had instructed. The document indicated that, while the child's young age prevented her from expressing a preference as to her place of residence, an immediate separation from the mother was to be ruled out on account of the likelihood of psychological trauma. The Rīga Regional Court held that the findings of the psychological report concerned the merits of the custody issue and could not therefore serve as evidence in ruling on the child's return.

The Grand Chamber held that it was the parent who opposed return who must adduce sufficient evidence that a grave risk of harm existed for the purposes of Article 13(1)(b). It specified that the exception could not be read, in the light of Article 8 of the ECHR, as including all of the inconveniences necessarily linked to the experience of return. Rather the exception concerned only the situations which went beyond what a child might reasonably bear.

The mother had fulfilled her obligation by submitting the psychologist's certificate concluding that there existed a risk of trauma for the child in the event of immediate separation from her mother. She had also submitted that the father had criminal convictions and referred to instances of ill-treatment by him. The Grand Chamber stated that it was therefore for the Latvian courts to carry out meaningful checks, enabling them to either confirm or exclude the existence of a "grave risk".

The Grand Chamber held that the refusal of the Rīga Regional Court to take into account the mother's allegation, which was substantiated by the psychologist's report, was contrary to the procedural obligation imposed on the Latvian authorities by Article 8 of the ECHR, requiring that an arguable allegation of "grave risk" be effectively examined by the courts and their findings set out in a reasoned court decision.

The Grand Chamber added that the fact the mother had commissioned the report did not suffice to absolve the Latvian courts from their obligation to examine it effectively. Furthermore, the issue of whether it was possible for the mother to follow her daughter to Australia and to maintain contact with her should also have been dealt with.

The Grand Chamber reiterated that while Article 11 of the Hague Convention provides that judicial authorities must act expeditiously, this did not exonerate them from the duty to undertake an effective examination of allegations made by a party on the basis of one of the exceptions.

The Grand Chamber ruled that the mother had suffered a disproportionate interference with her right to respect for her family life, in that the decision-making process under domestic law did not satisfy the procedural requirements inherent in Article 8 of the ECHR, the Riga Regional Court having failed to carry out an effective examination of her allegations under Article 13(1)(b) of the Hague Convention.

Dissenting Opinion:
The eight dissenting judges stated that they were unable to accept the majority's view that the appellate court in Latvia was in breach of its procedural obligations under Article 8 because it had refused to take into account the mother's claim, said to have been supported by the psychologist's certificate and witness statements, that the child's return to Australia would expose her to a "grave risk" of harm. The dissenting judges held that the majority's view did not do justice to the decision or reasoning of the Latvian courts.

The dissenting judges noted, inter alia, that the appellate court in Latvia did not refuse or fail to take the psychologist's certificate into account. On the contrary, it had emphasised that the certificate concerned only the issue of the separation of mother and child, which was a matter relating to custody rights which fell to be determined exclusively by the Australian courts. Furthermore, the mother's allegations against the father had been dismissed on the grounds that no evidence had been submitted which could, even indirectly, support them.

The dissenting judges rejected the view that more should have been done to examine whether it was feasible for the mother to return to Australia with the child, or whether the return of the child would inevitably have resulted in her separation from the mother. They noted there was no legal impediment to the mother's return to Australia. Nothing in the appellate court's judgment affected the mother's right to retain custody and to accompany the child back to Australia.

It did not appear she had argued that, for reasons of personal safety or otherwise, she could not under any circumstances contemplate returning to Australia. The dissenting judges held that the mother's allegations against the father had been rejected as wholly unsubstantiated. Furthermore, there were no grounds for doubting the quality of the welfare and social protection provided to children in Australia.

The dissenting judges were unpersuaded by the argument, implicit in the majority's judgment, that the Latvian Courts should have taken the initiative by requesting further information from the Australian authorities about the father's criminal profile. They stated that in proceedings under Article 13 of the Hague Convention, the burden lay on the party to adduce evidence to substantiate a claim of "grave risk".

The dissenting judges concluded that while the reasons given by the Latvian courts for ordering the return of the child were shortly expressed, they adequately responded to the mother's arguments, and, that the examination of the claims made by the mother satisfied the procedural requirements imposed on them by Article 8 of the ECHR.

Procedural Matters


By ten votes to seven, the Court held that the respondent State was to pay the mother, within three months, 2,000 Euros in respect of costs and expenses.

Author of the summary: Peter McEleavy

INCADAT comment

See the chamber judgment in this case dated 13 December 2011: X. v. Latvia (Application No 27853/09) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1146]. 

European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR) Judgments

Inchoate Rights of Custody

The reliance on 'inchoate custody rights', to afford a Convention remedy to applicants who have actively cared for removed or retained children, but who do not possess legal custody rights, was first identified in the English decision:

Re B. (A Minor) (Abduction) [1994] 2 FLR 249 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 4],

and has subsequently been followed in that jurisdiction in:

Re O. (Child Abduction: Custody Rights) [1997] 2 FLR 702, [1997] Fam Law 781 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 5];

Re G. (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2002] 2 FLR 703 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 505].

The concept has been the subject of judicial consideration in:

Re W. (Minors) (Abduction: Father's Rights) [1999] Fam 1 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/Uke 503];

Re B. (A Minor) (Abduction: Father's Rights) [1999] Fam 1 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 504];

Re G. (Child Abduction) (Unmarried Father: Rights of Custody) [2002] EWHC 2219 (Fam); [2002] ALL ER (D) 79 (Nov), [2003] 1 FLR 252 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 506].

In one English first instance decision: Re J. (Abduction: Declaration of Wrongful Removal) [1999] 2 FLR 653 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 265], it was questioned whether the concept was in accordance with the decision of the House of Lords in Re J. (A Minor) (Abduction: Custody Rights) [1990] 2 AC 562, [1990] 2 All ER 961, [1990] 2 FLR 450, sub nom C. v. S. (A Minor) (Abduction) [INCADAT cite: HC/E/UKe 2] where it was held that de facto custody was not sufficient to amount to rights of custody for the purposes of the Convention.

The concept of 'inchoate custody rights', has attracted support and opposition in other Contracting States.

The concept has attracted support in a New Zealand first instance case: Anderson v. Paterson [2002] NZFLR 641 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/NZ 471].

However, the concept was specifically rejected by the majority of the Irish Supreme Court in the decision of: H.I. v. M.G. [1999] 2 ILRM 1; [2000] 1 IR 110 [INCADAT cite: HC/E/IE 284].

Keane J. stated that it would go too far to accept that there was 'an undefined hinterland of inchoate rights of custody not attributed in any sense by the law of the requesting state to the party asserting them or to the court itself, but regard by the court of the requested state as being capable of protection under the terms of the Convention.'

The Court of Justice of the European Union has subsequently upheld the position adopted by the Irish Courts:

Case C-400/10 PPU J. McB. v. L.E., [INCADAT cite: HC/E/ 1104].

In its ruling the European Court noted that the attribution of rights of custody, which were not accorded to an unmarried father under national law, would be incompatible with the requirements of legal certainty and with the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others, notably those of the mother. 

This formulation leaves open the status of ‘incohate rights’ in a EU Member State where the concept had become part of national law.  The United Kingdom (England & Wales) would fall into this category, but it must be recalled that pursuant to the terms of Protocol (No. 30) on the Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union to Poland and to the United Kingdom (OJ C 115/313, 9 May 2008), the CJEU could not in any event make a finding of inconsistency with regard to UK law vis-a-vis Charter rights. 

For academic criticism of the concept of inchoate rights see: Beaumont P.R. and McEleavy P.E. 'The Hague Convention on International Child Abduction' Oxford, OUP, 1999, at p. 60.

Primary Carer Abductions

The issue of how to respond when a taking parent who is a primary carer threatens not to accompany a child back to the State of habitual residence if a return order is made, is a controversial one.

There are examples from many Contracting States where courts have taken a very strict approach so that, other than in exceptional situations, the Article 13(1)(b) exception has not been upheld where the non-return argument has been raised, see:

Austria
4Ob1523/96, Oberster Gerichtshof [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AT 561]

Canada
M.G. v. R.F., 2002 R.J.Q. 2132 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 762]

N.P. v. A.B.P., 1999 R.D.F. 38 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CA 764]

In this case, a non-return order was made since the facts were exceptional. There had been a genuine threat to the mother, which had put her quite obviously and rightfully in fear for her safety if she returned to Israel. The mother was taken to Israel on false pretences, sold to the Russian Mafia and re-sold to the father who forced her into prostitution. She was locked in, beaten by the father, raped and threatened. The mother was genuinely in a state of fear and could not be expected to return to Israel. It would be wholly inappropriate to send the child back without his mother to a father who had been buying and selling women and running a prostitution business.

United Kingdom - England and Wales
C. v. C. (Minor: Abduction: Rights of Custody Abroad) [1989] 1 WLR 654 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 34]

Re C. (Abduction: Grave Risk of Psychological Harm) [1999] 1 FLR 1145 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 269]

However, in a more recent English Court of Appeal judgment, the C. v. C. approach has been refined:

Re S. (A Child) (Abduction: Grave Risk of Harm) [2002] 3 FCR 43, [2002] EWCA Civ 908 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 469]

In this case, it was ruled that a mother's refusal to return was capable of amounting to a defence because the refusal was not an act of unreasonableness, but came about as a result of an illness she was suffering from. It may be noted, however, that a return order was nevertheless still made. In this context reference may also be made to the decisions of the United Kingdom Supreme Court in Re E. (Children) (Abduction: Custody Appeal) [2011] UKSC 27, [2012] 1 A.C. 144 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 1068] and Re S. (A Child) (Abduction: Rights of Custody) [2012] UKSC 10, [2012] 2 A.C. 257 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKe 1147], in which it was accepted that the anxieties of a respondent mother about return, which were not based upon objective risk to her but nevertheless were of such intensity as to be likely, in the event of a return, to destabilise her parenting of the child to the point at which the child's situation would become intolerable, could in principle meet the threshold of the Article 13(1)(b) exception.

Germany
Oberlandesgericht Dresden, 10 UF 753/01, 21 January 2002 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 486]

Oberlandesgericht Köln, 21 UF 70/01, 12 April 2001 [INCADAT: HC/E/DE 491]

Previously a much more liberal interpretation had been adopted:
Oberlandesgericht Stuttgart, 17 UF 260/98, 25 November 1998 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/DE 323]

Switzerland
5P_71/2003/min, II. Zivilabteilung, arrêt du TF du 27 mars 2003 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 788]

5P_65/2002/bnm, II. Zivilabteilung, arrêt du TF du 11 avril 2002 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 789]

5P_367/2005/ast, II. Zivilabteilung, arrêt du TF du 15 novembre 2005 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 841]

5A_285/2007/frs, IIe Cour de droit civil, arrêt du TF du 16 août 2007 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 955]

5A_479/2012, IIe Cour de droit civil, arrêt du TF du 13 juillet 2012 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/CH 1179]

New Zealand
K.S. v. L.S. [2003] 3 NZLR 837 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/NZ 770]

United Kingdom - Scotland
McCarthy v. McCarthy [1994] SLT 743 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UKs 26]

United States of America
Panazatou v. Pantazatos, No. FA 96071351S (Conn. Super. Ct., 1997) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/USs 97]

In other Contracting States, the approach taken with regard to non-return arguments has varied:

Australia
In Australia, early Convention case law exhibited a very strict approach adopted with regard to non-return arguments, see:

Director-General Department of Families, Youth and Community Care and Hobbs, 24 September 1999, Family Court of Australia (Brisbane) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AU 294]

Director General of the Department of Family and Community Services v. Davis (1990) FLC 92-182 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AU 293]
 
In State Central Authority v. Ardito, 20 October 1997 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/AU 283], the Family Court of Australia at Melbourne did find the grave risk of harm exception to be established where the mother would not return, but in this case the mother had been denied entry into the United States of America, the child's State of habitual residence.

Following the judgment of the High Court of Australia (the highest court in the Australian judicial system) in the joint appeals DP v. Commonwealth Central Authority; J.L.M. v. Director-General, NSW Department of Community Services [2001] HCA 39, (2001) 180 ALR 402 [INCADAT Reference HC/E/AU 346, 347], greater attention has been focused on the post-return situation facing abducted children.

In the context of a primary-carer taking parent refusing to return to the child's State of habitual residence see: Director General, Department of Families v. RSP. [2003] FamCA 623 [INCADAT Reference HC/E/AU 544]. 

France
In French case law, a permissive approach to Article 13(1)(b) has been replaced with a much more restrictive interpretation. For examples of the initial approach, see:

Cass. Civ 1ère 12. 7. 1994, S. c. S.. See Rev. Crit. 84 (1995), p. 96 note H. Muir Watt; JCP 1996 IV 64 note Bosse-Platière, Defrénois 1995, art. 36024, note J. Massip [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/FR 103]

Cass. Civ 1ère, 22 juin 1999, No de RG 98-17902 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/FR 498]

And for examples of the stricter interpretation, see:

Cass Civ 1ère, 25 janvier 2005, No de RG 02-17411 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/FR 708]

CA Agen, 1 décembre 2011, No de RG 11/01437 [INCADAT Reference HC/E/FR 1172]

Israel
In Israeli case law there are contrasting examples of the judicial response to non-return arguments:
 
Civil Appeal 4391/96 Ro v. Ro [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/IL 832]

in contrast with:

Family Appeal 621/04 D.Y v. D.R [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/IL 833]

Poland
Decision of the Supreme Court, 7 October 1998, I CKN 745/98 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/PL 700]

The Supreme Court noted that it would not be in the child's best interests if she were deprived of her mother's care, were the latter to choose to remain in Poland. However, it equally affirmed that if the child were to stay in Poland it would not be in her interests to be deprived of the care of her father. For these reasons, the Court concluded that it could not be assumed that ordering the return of the child would place her in an intolerable situation.

Decision of the Supreme Court, 1 December 1999, I CKN 992/99 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/PL 701]

The Supreme Court specified that the frequently used argument of the child's potential separation from the taking parent, did not, in principle, justify the application of the exception. It held that where there were no objective obstacles to the return of a taking parent, then it could be assumed that the taking parent considered his own interest to be more important than those of the child.

The Court added that a taking parent's fear of being held criminally liable was not an objective obstacle to return, as the taking parent should have been aware of the consequences of his actions. The situation with regard to infants was however more complicated. The Court held that the special bond between mother and baby only made their separation possible in exceptional cases, and this was so even if there were no objective obstacles to the mother's return to the State of habitual residence. The Court held that where the mother of an infant refused to return, whatever the reason, then the return order should be refused on the basis of Article 13(1)(b). On the facts, return was ordered.

Uruguay
Solicitud conforme al Convenio de La Haya sobre los Aspectos Civiles de la Sustracción Internacional de Menores - Casación, IUE 9999-68/2010 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/UY 1185]

European Court of Human Rights (ECrtHR)
There are decisions of the ECrtHR which have endorsed a strict approach with regard to the compatibility of Hague Convention exceptions and the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Some of these cases have considered arguments relevant to the issue of grave risk of harm, including where an abductor has indicated an unwillingness to accompany the returning child, see:

Ilker Ensar Uyanık c. Turquie (Application No 60328/09) [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1169]

In this case, the ECrtHR upheld a challenge by the left-behind father that the refusal of the Turkish courts to return his child led to a breach of Article 8 of the ECHR. The ECrtHR stated that whilst very young age was a criterion to be taken into account to determine the child's interest in an abduction case, it could not be considered by itself a sufficient ground, in relation to the requirements of the Hague Convention, to justify dismissal of a return application.

Recourse has been had to expert evidence to assist in ascertaining the potential consequences of the child being separated from the taking parent

Maumousseau and Washington v. France (Application No 39388/05) of 6 December 2007 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 942]

Lipowsky and McCormack v. Germany (Application No 26755/10) of 18 January 2011 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1201]

MR and LR v. Estonia (Application No 13420/12) of 15 May 2012 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1177]

However, it must equally be noted that since the Grand Chamber ruling in Neulinger and Shuruk v. Switzerland, there are examples of a less strict approach being followed. The latter ruling had emphasised the best interests of the individual abducted child in the context of an application for return and the ascertainment of whether the domestic courts had conducted an in-depth examination of the entire family situation as well as a balanced and reasonable assessment of the respective interests of each person, see:

Neulinger and Shuruk v. Switzerland (Application No 41615/07), Grand Chamber, of 6 July 2010 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1323]

X. v. Latvia (Application No 27853/09) of 13 December 2011 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1146]; and Grand Chamber ruling X. v. Latvia (Application No 27853/09), Grand Chamber [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1234]

B. v. Belgium (Application No 4320/11) of 10 July 2012 [INCADAT Reference: HC/E/ 1171]

In this case, a majority found that the return of a child to the United States of America would lead to a breach of Article 8 of the ECHR. The decision-making process of the Belgian Appellate Court as regards Article 13(1)(b) was held not to have met the procedural requirements inherent in Article 8 of the ECHR. The two dissenting judges noted, however, that the danger referred to in Article 13 should not consist only of the separation of the child from the taking parent.

(Author: Peter McEleavy, April 2013)

Protection of Human rights & Fundamental Freedoms

Preparation of INCADAT commentary in progress.